胡塞尔的现象学与科学实在论

胡塞尔对“伽利略科学”的议论(载于其《欧洲科学的危机和先验现象学》一书1970年英文翻译版)常以其幼稚的工具主义态度和对科学抱有的敌意而遭到摈弃。由于他对科学理想化的误解,由于他将生活世界当作一种专用的概念构架,以及由于他否认科学在原则上能够完全描述世界(因为普通的前科学概念是不可替换的),他受到了公开的批评。本文中我要阐明胡塞尔关于实在论的主张,并运用这种主张说明前两种批评是立足于曲解。第三种批评应予采纳,不过,这种批评与胡塞尔的基本主张是一致的,即议论事物的现象是重要的,但是经验科学却难以彻底了解这些现象。     

共产主义实验在苏联

1.斯大林个人扭曲了的共产主义意识形态“斯大林主义”,是苏联官方理论家从不使用的一个术语。而且,它一般也并没有被人们广泛地当作马克思-列宁主义来运用。有时候,斯大林主义被误解为是马列主义的一种扩大或发展。实际上,斯大林主义倒可以看作是从马列主义中派生出来并且背离了马列主义的,它(直到1953年斯大林去世时     

系统剪影:作为哲学的一般系统

我对介绍一般系统论有为难和讨厌之感。显然,在我看来,一般系统论者所关注的中心问题即“系统的本质是什么?”基本上是一个哲学问题。然而,我所接触的一般系统论者不仅没提及哲学,而且似乎把哲学看作废弃的和缺乏时代性的东西(哲学的某些问题很久以前就被逻辑实证主义者取消     

笛卡儿的二元论在分析和身心问题上的矛盾

“笛卡儿的二元论”在西方哲学看来很象一个稻草人,因为就“笛卡儿二元论”这一命名的观点来看,事实上,这一贬意称呼与其所由来的历史情况无关。当然,不少人会论辩说,笛卡儿是一位提出心灵和躯体的本质及它们相互之间作用的独特理论的作者,然而,这一理论却经常被丑化为“笛卡儿的二元论”而遭到批评。真实的情况是:笛卡儿坚     

克劳德·莱维—斯特劳斯:走向艺术的结构

一种无法遏止的对比,已被D.莱温(Levine)用漫画手法清晰地表现出来了。一边是受过极高教育的法国学者克劳德·莱维-斯特劳斯,他对古典哲学传统有渊博的知识,并且对世界范围内不同文化的人类学造诣极深;另一边是卢梭所说的高尚的原始人的形象,直接取自自然的状态,即处在自由自在的形式中的人性。这两位也许正在一间富丽堂皇的沙龙中,呷着各自的马丁尼酒,进行着一场深刻的讨论。这幅漫画表明了菜维-斯特劳斯对我们时代的社会科学变革所做的主要贡献,他认为,     

A quantitative analysis of chain-schedule performance

Six pigeons were trained with a chain variable-interval variable-interval schedule on the left key and with reinforcers available on the right key on a single variable-interval schedule arranged concurrently with both links of the chain. All three schedules were separately and systematically varied over a wide range of mean intervals. During these manipulations, the obtained reinforcer rates on constant arranged schedules also frequently changed systematically. Increasing reinforcer rates in Link 2 of the chain increased response rates in both links and decreased response rates in the variable-interval schedule concurrently available with Link 2. Increasing Link-1 reinforcer rates increased Link-1 response rates and decreased Link-2 response rates. Increasing reinforcer rates on the right-key schedule decreased response rates in Link 1 of the chain but did not affect the rate in Link 2. The results extend and amplify previous analyses of chain-schedule performance and help define the effects that a quantitative model must describe. However, the complexity of the results, and the fact that constant arranged reinforcer schedules did not necessarily lead to constant obtained reinforcer rates, precluded a quantitative analysis.     

Effects of relative reinforcer frequency on complex color detection

Pigeons were trained under a discrete-trials detection procedure in which one of a set of color stimuli was presented on the center key and a single response turned off the stimulus and illuminated two side keys. Single responses to one or the other side key produced occasional reinforcers depending on the value of the color stimulus. In Experiment 1, one color-stimulus set comprised 559, 564, 569, and 574 nm, and right-key pecks were occasionally reinforced following presentations of members of this set. The other stimulus set comprised 579, 584, 589, and 594 nm, and left-key pecks were occasionally reinforced following presentations of members of this set. Across seven experimental conditions, the left/(left + right) relative reinforcer frequency was varied from .1 to .9. In Experiment 2, one stimulus set contained only one member, 574 nm, and right-key responses were occasionally reinforced following its presentation. Over 12 experimental conditions, two manipulations were carried out. First, the number of stimuli comprising the other stimulus set was increased from one (579 nm) to two (579 and 584 nm) to three (579, 584, and 589 nm) and to four (579, 584, 589, and 594 nm), and left-key responses were reinforced occasionally following center-key presentations of members of this set. Second, for each stimulus combination, the left/(left + right) relative reinforcer frequency was varied from .1 to .5 to .9 across three experimental conditions. The principal finding of Experiments 1 and 2 was that reinforcers and stimuli interacted in their effects on behavior. In Experiment 3, pairs of adjacent stimuli (5 nm apart) in the range 559 to 594 nm were presented in each experimental condition, and the left/(left + right) relative reinforcer frequency was held constant at .5. The data from all three experiments were analyzed according to a detection model describing performance in multiple-stimulus two-response procedures. This model provided independent measures of stimulus discriminability, contingency discriminability, and bias. The analysis showed that (a) consistent with the color-naming function, pigeons were better able to discriminate between higher nanometer values than lower nanometer values; (b) their ability to discriminate between the stimuli was independent of the number of wavelengths comprising each stimulus set; (c) they allocated delivered reinforcers very accurately to the previously emitted response; and (d) no consistent biases emerged.     

Algorithmic shaping and misbehavior in the acquisition of token deposit by rats

In two experiments, rats were trained to deposit ball bearings down a hole in the floor, using an algorithmic version of shaping. The experimenter coded responses expected to be precursors of the target response, ball bearing deposit; a computer program reinforced these responses, or not, according to an algorithm that mimicked the processes thought to occur in conventional shaping. In the first experiment, 8 of 10 rats were successfully shaped; in the second, 5 of 5 were successfully shaped, and the median number of sessions required was the same as for a control group trained using conventional shaping. In both experiments, “misbehavior,” that is, excessive handling and chewing of the ball bearings, was observed, and when the algorithmic shaping procedure was used, misbehavior could be shown to occur in spite of reduced reinforcement for the responses involved.     

Functional classes and equivalence relations

Three adult subjects were taught a set of two-choice simultaneous discriminations, with three positive and three negative stimuli; all possible combinations of positive and negative stimuli yielded nine different pairs. The discriminations were repeatedly reversed and rereversed, the former positive stimuli becoming negative and the former negative stimuli becoming positive. With all subjects, a reversal of the contingencies for one pair of stimuli became sufficient to change their responses to all of the other pairs. The reversals had produced functional stimulus classes. Then, all subjects showed conditional discriminations emerging between members of a functional class; given a sample from one class and comparisons from both classes, they selected the comparison that was in the same class as the sample. Next, 2 of the subjects showed that the within-class conditional relations possessed the symmetric and transitive properties of equivalence relations; after having been taught to relate new stimuli to existing class members, the subjects then matched other class members to the new stimuli. Subsequent tests of two-choice discriminations showed that the conditional discriminations had transferred functional class membership to the new stimuli. The 3rd subject, who did not show equivalence relations among functional class members, was also found to have lost the within-class conditional relations after the equivalence tests.     

解释学

一、从1966到1976年,是解释学尤其是“哲学解释学”内部急剧发展的十年,是它同当代各种思想流派对话、进行活跃的“解释的论战”的十年。我们可以用P.利科尔在《论解释》一书(1965)中的一句话,即“语言的问题和原文(或译为本文——译者)解释的问题已经变为当代思想的十字路口”,来说明这整个十年的情况。除了传统的解释学、神学的解释学和H.-G.加达默尔的哲学解释学以外,其他思想运动也一一涌现了出来——例如结构主义、符号学、拉康的以语言为中心的弗洛伊德精神分析学、福柯以及对尼采的研究。后面这些研究的发展使国际上认为法国在语言理论和原文解释理论方面是大步前进的研究中心。当然,有