开放的中国──封闭的中国

禁地,亦即指由于地形原因而不可进入的地区,尤其是指出于政治、宗教或其他动机而作出的决策所禁止入内的区域（场所、城市、国家）。禁地往往蒙上了一种神秘的气氛．几乎必然会引起人们的好奇。到达拉萨曾是几代探险家的梦想。这一地区不仅对外人封闭,而且对“内部人”也封闭：任何人不得离开“外出”。德川幕府对日本实行的隔绝就是这样一种双向隔离。当然．地理条件也有助于这种隔离,因而使之轻易地付诸实行。有人指出（或许这种说法不够严肃）．举世闻名的中国长城不仅意味着防范匈奴入侵,更意味着防止中国人逃离。史料也表明中国过…     

Children's capacity to agree to psychological research: knowledge of risks and benefits and voluntariness

A series of studies investigated the capacity of children between the ages of 7 and 12 to give free and informed consent to participation in psychological research. Children were reasonably accurate in describing the purpose of studies, but many did not understand the possible benefits or especially the possible risks of participating. In several studies children's consent was not affected by the knowledge that their parents had given their permission or by the parents saying that they would not be upset if the children refused. In contrast, other studies found that children were much more likely to stop their participation if the experimenter said explicitly that she would not be upset if they stopped. We suggest that experimenters should pay more attention to describing the possible risks and benefits of participation in research, and that they should also make it clearer to children that they are free to stop once they have begun.     

Orienting the finger opposition space during prehension movements

Two experiments are reported that examined the act of prehension when subjects were asked to grasp with their thumb and index finger pads an elongated object resting horizontally on a surface and placed at different orientations with respect to the subject. In Experiment 1, the pad opposition preferences were determined for the six angles of orientation examined. For angles of 90 degrees (object parallel to frontal plane) or less, no rotation of the wrist (pronation) was used; for angles 110 degrees or greater, pronation was systematically employed to reorient the finger opposition space. Only one angle, 100 degrees , produced any evidence of ambiguity in how to grasp the object: Approximately 60% of these grasps involved pronation and 40% did not. Using the foregoing grasp preference data, in Experiment 2 we examined the kinematics of the wrist and elbow trajectories during prehension movements directed at an object in different orientations. Movement time, time to peak acceleration, velocity, and deceleration were measured. No kinematic differences were observed when the object orientation either required (110 degrees ) or did not require (80 degrees ) a pronation. By contrast, if the orientation was changed at the onset of the movement, such that an unpredicted pronation had to be introduced to achieve the grasp, kinematics were affected: Movement time was increased, and the time devoted to deceleration was lengthened. These data are interpreted as evidence that when natural prehension occurs, pronation can be included in the motor plan without affecting the movement kinematics. When constraints are imposed on the movement execution as a consequence of a perturbation, however, the introduction of a pronation component requires kinematic rearrangement.     

卢卡奇的批判思想

G·卢卡奇是20世纪最权威的和最具有独创性的马克思主义思想家之一。说他是一个真正意义上权威的马克思主义者是因为,他的理论是以实践为导向或面向实践的,而且致力于改变世界。当然,这一理论包含着一个内容丰富的理论中介系统——从确立最抽象的方法论和人类学的基础到勾画彻底重建个体社会和共同体的具体方案。但是,对一种理论来说,以实践为导向,首先意味着它必须是批判性的。社会结构、政治制度、社会行为方式、文化领域,都不应被视为可孤立地思考、公正地描述、不考虑价值判断的分析和解释,或可作纯粹理解的既定对象。整个社会领域,包括已经被改造成为我们最接近的环境的那部分自然界,都必须看作是一种人的产品。因此,作为历史的一个阶段,它是满足且也破坏人类渴望的一项未完成的工作。对于任何有意义的人类未来来说,这些生活方式都是不可缺少的。与此同时,它们也有着显著的局限性,即削弱人类所付出的巨大努力,给人类带来连续不断的痛苦和苦难,因此是有待克服的。在辩证的扬弃,(Aufhebung)的这个意义上说,卢卡奇是一位第一流的批判思想家。     

方法优势与方法的非统一性

自本世纪60年代以来,理论选择的不一致问题吸引了许多探讨科学变革理论的理论家们(如库恩、图尔明、费耶阿本德、夏皮尔、劳丹等)。此问题源于科学家们对于相互竞争的理论的认知价值经常有、而且长期存在着不一致的看法。除了有这种分歧以外,理论争论的不同阵营的科学家们还一次又一次地(而且依然继续地)为他们的理论选择提出不同的理由。以前的实证主义科学哲学家们对方法的统一性假说如此深信不疑,以至对于科学家在选择理论时的不一致,或科学家面对更成功的具有竞争性的理论时追求新生的理论这类现象潜在的合理性,很难作出说明。     

今日维特根斯坦

维特根斯坦在第一次世界大战的战壕中写完他的第一本书——《逻辑哲学论》,当时他在奥地利军队中服役.一系列精雕细刻的格言由一个复杂的排列体系联结起来,并且一切都按照从形而上学到形式逻辑的方向排列.此书被罗素誉为是一部杰作.人们很快就广泛认识到这本书的重要性,特别是通过石里克、卡纳普和魏斯曼,维也纳学派认识到了它的重要性.《逻辑哲学论》立刻使维特根斯坦在哲学家的神殿中占有了一席之地.《逻辑哲学论》是维特根斯坦自己出版的唯一的一本书.有一段时间他放弃哲学去当了一名小学教师,后来又在奥地利做一名建筑师,1929年他回到剑桥,在那里断断续续地工作一直到他1951年去世.他的思想交流实际上仅局限于课堂,他在由学生和同事组成的非常亲密的