A new explanation for the Poggendorff illusion

Kanizsa (1972, 1974) has observed that the surface upon which a figure is amodally completed undergoes shrinkage. That observation is investigated here as a possible explanation of the Poggendorff illusion, on the assumption that the shrinkage of the surface behind the surface defined by the two vertical parallel lines results in displacement of the two visible segments of the oblique line. The first two experiments attempted to quantify the shrinkage of the amodal surface by measuring the enlargement of the vertical strip required to achieve perceived collinearity; the oblique lines intercepted the vertical strip at 45- and 30-deg angles. In both cases, the enlargement required to counterbalance the assumed amodal shrinkage was approximately 30%. In the third experiment, the oblique line was rotated to the horizontal, and again the perceived shrinkage of the amodal surface was approximately 30%. The application of this explanation to the Poggendorff illusion is discussed, as well as the relevance of this explanation to the common experimental finding that magnitude of the illusion is dependent upon the slope of the oblique line.     

Disassembling a Stereotype: Gender Differences in the Use of Token Resistance1

Traditionally, women have been perceived as using token resistance to avoid appearing desirous of sexual activity and to gain some degree of restrictive control in heterosexual dating interactions. In the current study, we examined both men's and women's use of token resistance and the reasons they attributed for their use of this dating behavior. A total of 108 male and 199 female heterosexual college students completed the Dating Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) used to examine the use of token resistance, as well as a number of attitudinal and behavioral measures. An ANOVA revealed that a higher percentage of men than women reported the use of token resistance. The types of reasons men and women attributed to their behavior did not differ. Token resistance reportedly served a number of functions, including an expressive game-playing function. Most interactions were perceived by both men and women as being pleasant, despite concerns by researchers that token resistance may be associated with a partner's subsequent use of sexual coercion. Thus, token resistance does not appear to be indicative of adverserial relations. The findings are discussed in terms of the benefits for men and women of relaxing the constraints of traditional gender roles with regard to dating behavior.     

Olfaction in autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review

Olfactory function is a well-known early biomarker for neurodegeneration and neural functioning in the adult population, being supported by a number of brain structures that could be dysfunctioning in neurodegenerative processes. Evidence has suggested that atypical sensory and, particularly, olfactory processing is present in several neurodevelopmental conditions, including autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). In this paper, we present data obtained by a systematic literature review, conducted according to PRISMA guidelines, regarding the possible association between olfaction and ASDs, and analyze them critically in order to evaluate the occurrence of olfactory impairment in ASDs, as well as the possible usefulness of olfactory evaluation in such conditions. The results obtained in this analysis suggested a possible involvement of olfactory impairment in ASDs, underlining the importance of olfactory evaluation in the clinical assessment of ASDs. This assessment could be potentially included as a complementary evaluation in the diagnostic protocol of the condition. Methods for study selection and inclusion criteria were specified in advance and documented in PROSPERO protocol #CRD42014013939.     

The Social Behavior Scale for Preschool Children: Factorial Structure and Concurrent Validity

The aims of the present study were to examine the factor validity of a new social behavior assessment - the Social Behavior Scale (SBS) - using exploratory (sample 1, n = 169) and confirmatory (sample 2, n = 127) factor analysis, and to test factor invariance across gender in a sample of Italian preschoolers. The concurrent validity of the SBS was examined with measures of peer nominations and observed interactions (sample 3, n = 277). Findings confirmed the three-factor structure of the SBS: Emotional Competence, Social Engagement and Aggressiveness. Multigroup analysis provided evidence of factor invariance across gender. Concerning concurrent validity, results confirmed a great association between teacher-rating SBS and the other concurrent measures.     

Language as a cultural vessel in online servicescapes: Its impact on consumers' perceived risk,attitudes, and behavioural intentions

Globalisation and the broader use of the Internet have led both academia and professionals to dedicate a great deal of attention to the analysis of the cultural differences that exist within a market and between different markets. Language emerges as a relevant issue in current marketing and communication management environments, especially in online servicescape. Following this premise, the current paper examines the role of language as a vessel of cultural values, namely, individualism and uncertainty avoidance, and its impact on consumer's perceived risk, attitudes, and behavioural intentions in online servicescape. To address this objective, an experimental design was performed. The sample comprised 491 Internet users from 2 different national cultures (British and Spanish). Users were asked to browse an experimental website in their native or first language, whereas the other half of the sample browsed in their second language (British subjects browsing in Spanish and vice versa). The unique contribution of this study lies in demonstrating that online information processing is moderated by the language by which users elaborate information and their cultural values in terms of the dimensions of individualism and uncertainty avoidance. The findings provide valuable insights into the role of language in international marketing strategies, as well as in multicultural and cross‐cultural integrated marketing communications. In this regard, marketers must acknowledge the symbolic cues of language and the competitive advantage that might derive from a strategic language choice to evoke emotions and forge attitudes that are consistent with brand and corporate values.     

Structure and continuity of intellectual development in early childhood

We evaluated over 200 participants semiannually from 12 to 48 months of age on measures of intellectual (Bayley Scales, Stanford–Binet Scale) and verbal (MacArthur–Bates Inventory, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) status. Structural equation modeling and hierarchical linear (growth curve) analyses were applied to address the nature of development and individual differences during this time. Structural analyses showed a strong and robust simplex model from infancy to the preschool period, with no evidence of qualitative reorganizations or discontinuities. Growth-curve modeling revealed significant associations between level factors across the early and later measures of cognition, providing further evidence of continuity; the growth trajectory from the Bayley through 24 months predicted growth in a nonverbal factor, but not in a verbal factor. Altogether, the findings reveal continuous and stable development in intellectual function from late infancy through the preschool years. Additionally, the high level of continuity demonstrated across these ages was observed to be largely independent of growth in vocabulary.     

Explaining Consumer Conduct: From Planned to Self‐Expressive Behavior1

Within mainstream social psychology, consumer behavior has been explained mainly in terms of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Recently, some authors suggested that self‐identity dimensions can explain different types of intentions. To compare the predictive power of a tentative new model of self‐expressive consumer behavior with that of the TPB, three studies were conducted in which, besides the classical variables of the model of TPB, variables concerning self‐identity were also taken into account. Three independent samples (N₁= 257, N₂= 214, N₃= 298) were recruited to study the intention to buy fashionable watches, trendy backpacks, and cellular telephones in relation to the aforementioned variables derived from TPB and from identity theory. Data analyses, based on structural equation modeling, show that identity variables contribute significantly to the explanation of purchase intention.     

Infant Attention Grows Up: The Emergence of a Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective

Visual attention has long been regarded as a tool for studying the development of basic cognitive skills in infancy and early childhood. However, over the past decade, the development of attention in early life has emerged as an important topic of research in its own right. This essay describes recent changes in the methods used to study attention in infancy, and in the nature of inferences about the early development of attention, as both research and theory in the area have become progressively integrated with models of attention from cognitive science and neuroscience.