Gender and reward distributions: A test of two hypotheses

This study was designed as a test of two competing explanations of gender differences in distributive justice: (a) the equity-equality hypothesis, which states that males endorse equitable distributions more than females and females endorse equal distributions more than males; and (b) the exploitation-accommodation hypothesis, which states that the sexes vary their norm endorsement according to self-favoring (males) or other-favoring (females) distribution outcomes. Preadolescent and college-aged subjects rated the fairness of reward distributions of vignette characters who had contributed either more or less than a co-worker in a task, and had subsequently divided the rewards either equitably or equally. The data provided no support for the equity-equality hypothesis, but did support the exploitation-accommodation hypothesis. Specifically, females rated equitable distributions of inferior workers as more fair than males did. Thus, the popular conclusion that males have a stronger commitment to equity than females must be rejected.     

A method for calibrating an eye-monitoring system for use with infants

An algorithm for calibrating data from an infrared corneal reflection eye movement monitor is described. The algorithm is designed for use with infants and other noninstructable subjects.     

Heteronyms and polyphones: Categories of words with multiple phonemic representations

Heteronyms are words that have two different possible pronunciations that are associated with two (or more) different meanings. They can be used to investigate psychological mechanisms in reading and other cognitive processes. A corpus of English heteronyms has been collected and is tabulated here. In addition, a corpus of English polyphones is tabulated. These are words with different pronunciations that are not associated with different meanings.     

Sex differences in the structure of intelligence: A confirmatory factor analysis

The LISREL model of Jöreskog and Sörbom was used to perform a comparative factor analysis on intelligence data from four sex by generation groups. The covariance matrices for 10 psychometric ability measures were used to isolate Spatial and Verbal Intelligence factors. Results from a series of factor analysis models indicated substantial invariance in the factor pattern and factor covariance matrices, although the hypothesis of complete invariance in factor pattern was rejected. The groups did differ in observed and unique variances. The results were basically consistent with the hypothesis that males and females have similar intellectual structure, which would have been obscured had standardized factor analysis been employed. There were also sex and generation differences in the Spatial and Verbal factor means.     

Partial negative reinforcement: fixed-ratio escape

Rats were unable to sustain performance when eight bar-presses turned off shock (−FR 8). In a second experiment, thirsty rats were able to maintain a moderate response rate when performance on −FR 8 was also reinforced with water. Some rats continued to bar-press on −FR 8 after withdrawal of positive reinforcement, but at a much lower rate. A possible explanation of the results is that during intermittent escape conditioning in a free-responding situation the absence of shock itself acquires aversive properties.     

The scaling of test scores by the method of paired comparisons

The purpose of this study is to investigate, by the method of paired comparisons, a possible scaling of individuals who have made certain test scores, such that the additive property will be satisfied and such that a stability in scaling will be maintained,—in other words, a scaling such that the scaled score of an individual will remain relatively the same regardless of the grouping of individuals in which he may be placed. The results show that it is possible to utilize psychophysical methods in psychological and educational test situations. Among the major findings are that Case V of the Law of Comparative Judgment is applicable to the data in this problem, the method of dividing the intermediate category equally between the greater and the less was the best of three possible methods, internal consistency was satisfied, and, finally, when a new test of stability was applied, it was found that the distances between the hypothetical individuals remain the same.The writer wishes to express appreciation for the invaluable help and guidance of Professor Harold O. Gulliksen and also to Professor Marion W. Richardson who suggested the problem and made valuable suggestions.     

Two adolescents at risk for schizophrenia: A family case study

This is a study of the complex factors that contributed to the development of adolescent psychoses in two stepbrothers, ages 12 and 15. The identified patient, the younger boy, was in what appeared to be a reversible stage of early adolescent psychosis and his 15 year old newly acquired stepbrother in a nonreversible stage. Each boy was a mentally gifted, neurologically handicapped adolescent who was inextricably vulnerable on the basis of his neurodevelopmental sensitivity to specific immobilizing parental fears and conflicts. Their inherent problems set them apart from their intact teenage sisters and affected the nature and quality of their total life experience. Those working with psychotic children and their families must bear these relationships in mind for optimal strategic intervention and change. In the management of psychotic adolescents and their families, the individual and family therapist could work to everyone's disadvantage if these important neurodevelopmental difficulties are not considered.1979, SummerThis study was supported in part by the Maternal and Child Health Services Training and Study Project No. 144, Department of Health, Education and Welfare.     

FATHERING IS A FEMINIST ISSUE

Feminist theory has not yet addressed the ways in which the ideology of fatherhood has contributed to interlocking inequalities for women in both the workplace and family life. This paper is an effort to inject a feminist voice into the redefinition of fathering, which I see as essential both to the achievement of equality for women and to the reconstruction of the masculine gender role. I begin by describing how our unconscious gender ideology pressures all families to become traditional patriarchal families. I address feminist concerns about the dangers of over-valuing fathers'contributions to child development. I review the research evidence on whether fathers have the same potential for nurturing as mothers, and examine gay fathering in particular. Finally, I suggest that redefining fathering to emphasize nurturing as well as providing will place attachment and connection at the center of gender socialization for men. Masculinity would then become much less oppressive for men as well as for women.