Distributive Justice in Competitive Access to Intercollegiate Athletic Teams Segregated by Sex

A theory of justice for the basic structure of society may constrain though not directly govern colleges. The principle of "equal opportunity" commonly applied to jobs either does or does not apply to varsity opportunities. If it applies, it interdicts sex discrimination but, one fallacious argument notwithstanding, it states no obligation to expend resources on new teams. If it does not apply, an analogue of Rawls's difference principle may appropriately constrain inequalities between the sexes. In either case the preferences of a majority of the sex affected by any inequality are pivotal in fashioning any tenable distributive policy. Those preferences are neglected by a government policy that assimilates equal opportunity to equality of (i) the ratio of male:female varsity athletes and (ii) the ratio of male:female students. It is argued that such policy rests on affirming the consequent. Its effects include misallocations of resources and overvaluation of athletics. It is argued that what should approximately be equal is competitive access, the ratio of available positions to aspirants, for each sex. Two versions of a principle of equal competitive access are proposed, the recommended one of which pertains to teams whose net consumption of resources is positive.     

Two youths who clutter, but is that the only similarity?

This article describes the clinical profile of two youngsters who clutter. Although both subjects share key characteristics, they differ in other respects. As we gain more systematic information on the nature and symptomatology of cluttering, we may conclude that it is not a homogeneous but a heterogeneous phenomenon.     

Factors affecting the filled-duration illusion in the auditory,tactual, and visual modalities

The filled-duration illusion was investigated for auditory, tactual, and visual presentation. The number of intervening discrete elements was the most important factor, as durations with more elements were judged longer than durations with fewer elements. In addition, the configuration of the intervening elements affected judgments. However, the illusion was identical in all three modalities. A cognitive explanation based on counting the number of intervening elements seemed most satisfactory.     

Minimal conditions for additive conjoint measurement and qualitative probability

Axioms for additive conjoint measurement and qualitative probability are given. Representation theorems and uniqueness theorems are proved for structures that satisfy these axioms. Both Archimedean and nonarchimedean cases are considered. Approximations of infinite structures by sequences of finite structures are also considered.     

Utility-uncertainty trade-off structures

A qualitative axiomatization of a generalization of expected utility theory is given in which the expected value of simple gambles is not necessarily the product of subjective probability and utility. Representation and uniqueness theorems for these generalized structures are derived for both Archimedean and nonarchimedean cases. It is also shown that a simple condition called distributivity is necessary and sufficient in the case of simple gambles for one of these generalized expected utility structures to have simultaneously an additive subjective probability function and a multiplicative combining rule for expected values.     

Reducing cigarette smoking in a retarded adult: An application of self-management procedures

An attempt was made to reduce the overall number of cigarettes smoked per day with a mildly retarded adult. Self-monitoring was compared to self-monitoring plus self-graphing and goal setting procedures in reducing the number of cigarettes smoked. Self-monitoring plus self-graphing and goal setting was superior to self-monitoring alone when the goal was set at 15 cigarettes per day, but the actual number of cigarettes smoked increased when the goal was set at 12. The number of cigarettes smoked during all treatment conditions was lower than either baseline conditions. The therapist also reduced the patient's caffeine intake and switched the client's brand of cigarettes to a low “tar”/nicotine brand. The reduction in caffeine and “tar”/nicotine was related to a small and transient increase in somatic complaints and verbal abuse, as well as the complete elimination of nocturnal enuresis. Brand switching to low “tar”/nicotine cigarettes did not result in an increase in the number of cigarettes smoked per day.     

Health care utilization by low-income clients of a community clinic: an archival study

An archival study was done of 500 medical records from a community clinic serving a low income predominantly Hispanic area of Los Angeles. The data collected included demographic characteristics and presented symptoms or reasons for visit, as well as diagnosis and treatment. The greatest number of patient visits were made for family planning services. A large porportion of the patients who received initial family planning services failed to return to the clinic for follow ups or additional supplies. A total of 208 pregnancy tests were performed in 151 of the 500 cases sampled. Of these, 152 were positive. The most frequently stated reason for requesting pediatric services was for physical exams, accounting for 30% of the visits. It should be noted that the discontinuity of care and insufficient utilization of preventive care seen in these results deserve serious attention by medical clinic administrators. The rate of patients who do not return for family planning after the initial visit is worrisome. A greater effort to attract women to family planning services at the time they request pregnancy verification could reduce the need for abortion of unwanted pregnancy. The data also indicate that changes in the wording of certain questions commonly asked of clients may be needed. This study allowed service providers to obtain important information about their performance, their needs, and the future direction that their services might take. This type of analysis is relatively low in cost and can yield important benefits, espicially if done on a periodical base in a search for policy implications.     

A SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE FOR INCREASING ATTENDING BEHAVIOR IN EDUCABLE MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN

The purpose of this study was to develop a self-instructional package that would aid highly distractible retarded children in increasing their attending behavior in a training and two generalization (a one-to-one and a classroom) situations. Three untrained subjects were monitored for general comparison and social validation purposes. One of these control subjects was distractible and the other two (criterion comparison) were evaluated as not having attentional problems. A multiple baseline design was employed in which training was sequentially introduced across subjects. During training, the experimental subjects were taught through self-instruction to focus their attention and to cope with two tasks, math and printing. After learning the self-instructions the subjects were systematically and sequentially exposed to photo-slides of distracting situations, to audio-distractors composed of noisy lunchroom verbal peer interactions, and to in vivo distractors provided by kindergarten children playing with wooden blocks in the training setting. The entire training procedure was handled in a game-like context to maintain subject interest and to facilitate generalization. The results suggested that the training package produced direct and generalized changes in self-instructional behavior. In addition, a decrease in off-task behavior occurred during math, printing, and also during a phonics program in the one-to-one and classroom situations. However, reliable changes in academic task performance were not observed. Finally, no systematic changes on any of the dependent measures occurred for the three untrained subjects.