An empirical study of item-test regression

Certain questions about the shape of item-test regressions are answered on the basis of data obtained from 103,275 examinees. Ten of the regressions obtained are shown in illustrative plots.This work was supported in part by the College Entrance Examination Board.     

An interval estimate for making statistical inferences about true scores

A numerical procedure is outlined for obtaining an interval estimate of the regression of true score on observed score. Only the frequency distribution of observed scores is needed for this. The procedure assumes that the conditional distribution of observed scores for fixed true score is binomial. The procedure is applied to several sets of test data.This research was sponsored in part by the Personnel and Training Research Programs, Psychological Sciences Division, Office of Naval Research, under Contract No. N00014-69-C-0017, Contract Authority Identification Number, NR No. 150-303, and Educational Testing Service. Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any purpose of the United States Government.     

Estimating true-score distributions in psychological testing (an empirical bayes estimation problem)

The following problem is considered: Given that the frequency distribution of the errors of measurement is known, determine or estimate the distribution of true scores from the distribution of observed scores for a group of examinees. Typically this problem does not have a unique solution. However, if the true-score distribution is smooth, then any two smooth solutions to the problem will differ little from each other. Methods for finding smooth solutions are developed a) for a population and b) for a sample of examinees. The results of a number of tryouts on actual test data are summarized.The writer wishes to thank Diana Lees and Virginia Lennon, who wrote the computer programs, carried out some of the mathematical derivations, and helped with other important aspects of the work. This work was supported in part by contract Nonr-2752(00) between the Office of Naval Research and Educational Testing Service. Reproduction, translation, use and disposal in whole or in part by or for the United States Government is permitted.     

Termination of parental rights: A neglected side effect of infant intervention programs

A significant proportion of infants receiving treatment in programs designed to prevent abuse and psychosocial disorders may be removed from the custody of their parents by social service agencies. In an effort to help distinguish those cases at risk for termination of parental rights (TPR), seven such cases were analyzed and compared to seven similar cases where TPR did not occur. All 14 cases were referred because of abuse/neglect, and were at risk for continued abuse. Results showed that TPR was most likely in families where the parents were viewed as being unpleasant, as having a poor relationship with their child, were seen as retarded by the social service agency, and whose infants showed large gains in developmental level, especially during foster placement. These findings were interpreted as indicating a mixture of actual lack of progress in treatment and a negative attitudinal set about these clients.     

Identification of self through olfaction

To study olfactory communication in humans, 100 undergraduates ranging from age 18 to 45 yr. wore freshly washed, identical T-shirts continuously for 24 hr. During this time, the participants did not bathe or shower or apply any scent producing substance to their bodies, i.e., deodorants, perfumes. Upon retrieval, each shirt was placed in an identical brown bag. In groups of 10, each participant attempted to identify the T-shirt he had worn the previous 24 hr. The task was administered separately for each individual so that no participants knew the choice by a previous colleague. Analysis shows that the participants were able to identify correctly their own shirts on the first try three-quarters of the time. Furthermore, sex, age, smoking habit of the participant, and menstrual cycle phase in the women were factors in successful outcomes.     

Directed Thinking and Readiness to Change Self‐Beneficial Behaviors: Are You Ready for Some Studying?

Previous research has suggested that intentions to engage in studying and other self-beneficial activities might be promoted more by thinking about actions one could take than by thinking about reasons for doing so. The present experiments assessed whether the relative efficacy of actions vs. reasons might depend on individuals' readiness to change. Consistent with previous findings on the processes of change most relevant in different stages, the benefits of self-generated actions were more pronounced for participants who were in the later stages of change. This \"matching-to-stage\" relationship occurred in 2 experiments that differed in stage measurement, how thinking was directed, and which outcomes were measured. The results have both practical and theoretical implications for attempts to change self-beneficial behaviors.     

Effects of Directed Thinking on Intentions to Engage in Beneficial Activities: Idea Generation or Mental Simulation?

How might people best persuade themselves to engage in beneficial activities, such as dieting, exercise, and studying? One strategy is to think about actions. Another strategy is to think about reasons. In previous research, students who were directed to think about actions increased their study intentions more than did students who were directed to think about reasons. The present experiment tested whether thinking about actions was effective because of idea generation (coming up with the thoughts) or because of mental simulation (imagining the scenarios). In immediate and delayed measures, directed thinking about actions (but not reasons) proved generally more effective when students focused on mental simulation than when they focused on idea generation. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed.