Effects of an observer on conformity to handwashing norm

Women were observed after elimination in a public restroom to determine the effects of the presence or absence of an observer upon the likelihood of handwashing. 18 of 20 subjects in the presence of another and 3 of 19 who were not observed washed. The difference in frequency of handwashing between the two groups was clearly significant.     

Another look at physicians' treatment of men and women with common complaints

A recent study of San Diego patients found that men received more extensive and appropriate diagnostic workups than women did for five common complaints (Armitage, K. J., Schneiderman, L. J., & Bass, R. A. Journal of the American Medical Association 1979, 241 2186–2187). This article is a broader analysis of medical care given to men and women for those complaints (fatigue, headache, vertigo/dizziness, chest pain, back pain), and it uses a national survey of ambulatory-care visits. We find that medical care is usually similar for men and women. When significant sex differences do appear, they often show that women receive more medical care during a visit. To some extent, differential care stems from different medical needs that men and women with a complaint have; when some medically relevant factors are controlled, half of the significant sex differences disappear. But half persist, and this suggests that psychosocial factors also underlie differential care for men and women. These may originate with patients (for example, their requests for particular services) or with physicians (for example stereotypes of men and women patients). In contrast to the San Diego study, the national data show that (1) women sometimes receive more diagnostic workups for the five complaints, and (2) when medical factors are controlled, sex differences in the extent and content of workups disappear. The only exception is that men with vertigo/dizziness receive more appropriate workups.     

The Motivating Potential of Leader Behaviors: A Comparison of Two Models1

The motivating potential of leader behaviors was investigated in a comparative test of two models relating leader behaviors, perceived role clarity, psychological influence, perceived self-competence, self-determination, and intrinsic motivation. Based on the data from 422 naval personnel and their immediate supervisors, it would appear that leaders' informational and controlling behaviors influence subordinates' perceptions of role clarity and psychological influence. Self-determination and self-competence also influence these perceptions. Psychological influence increases intrinsic motivation but role clarity influences intrinsic motivation only indirectly through its influence on psychological influence.     

The effects of muscle relaxation and stress on the blood pressure levels of normotensives

Shoemaker and Tasto (1975) found that progressive muscle relaxation lowers the blood pressure levels of essential hypertensives to within a normal range under laboratory conditions. As a sequel to this study the effects of muscle relaxation and stress on the blood pressure levels of normotensives were studied. One group was taught relaxation, one group was stressed, one group read, and one group did nothing. Blood pressure measurements taken immediately after the completion of these tasks indicated that muscle relaxation does not lower the blood pressure levels of normotensives but that stress significantly raises both the systolic and diastolic levels.Level of arousal can, at least in one sense, be viewed as occurring on a dimension defined by extreme anxiety at one end and extreme relaxation at the other. Research on the physiological correlates and/or defining properties of arousal has produced inconsistent and equivocal results. Little work has been done relating blood pressure levels to arousal, however. Shoemaker and Tasto (1975) found a consistent and predictable drop in the blood pressure levels of essential hypertensives as a result of progressive muscle relaxation. In their study those subjects with the highest blood pressure levels showed the greatest drop while those with moderately high levels showed moderate drops and those with the lowest levels (yet still above normal) showed the least amount of change. The amount by which blood pressure dropped as a result of progressive relaxation was positively correlated with the pretreatment level of blood pressure. The result of progressive relaxation was to lower blood pressure levels to within a normal range, with all subjects appearing to approach a lower asymptotic level. Because of the consistent picture which began to emerge, the question arose as to whether blood pressure might be a reliable physiological correlate of the relaxation-anxiety dimension.The more specific questions emanating from this issue were: what effect does progressive relaxation have on the blood pressure levels of normotensives; what effect does stress have on the blood pressure levels of normotensives; and, what effect does stress have on the blood pressure levels of essential hypertensives? Since we could not immediately foresee the benefits that would outweigh the potential harm that might arise by placing hypertensives under stress, this study was limited to addressing the first two questions.Since the blood pressure levels of normotensives are probably at an optimal level for the physiological functioning of the organism, lower levels would be physiologically nonadaptive. and thus progressive relaxation should not lower the blood pressure levels of normotensives as it does those of essential hypertensives. On the other hand, if the elevated blood pressure levels of essential hypertensives are at least in part the result of a stress reaction, it would be expected that the blood pressure levels of normotensives might rise under stress conditions.     

A comparison of auditory monitoring performance in blind subjects with that of sighted subjects in light and dark

Two experiments were performed in which blind Ss, sighted Ss working in the dark, and sighted Ss working in the light were compared as to their efficiency on an auditory watchkeeping task. Absolute and differential auditory thresholds were measured in both experiments, and in the second experiment the groups also underwent a signal detection session under alerted conditions. There was some inconsistency as to relative performance of the sighted groups, but in both experiments the blind Ss were superior on the auditory watchkeeping task as to signals detected and effective sensitivity (d’). 1 This difference was not attributable to a difference in auditory sensitivity or to a criterion adopted for