Where did you go wrong? Errors, partial errors, and the nature of human information processing

Human performance is seldom perfect, and even when an overt response is correct it may be accompanied by partial-error activity that does not achieve the level of a complete incorrect response. Partial errors can be detected in measures of the lateralized readiness potential, of the electromyogram, and of response force. Correct responses accompanied by partial errors tend to have slower reaction times than “clean” correct responses (because of response competition), and condition differences in reaction time can, on some occasions, be explained in terms of differences in the incidence of partial errors. In two-choice reaction time tasks, partial errors are more frequent when the imperative stimulus contains information that favors both responses, than when it contains information that favors only one response. The non-random nature of partial errors supports the inference that partial information about the stimulus is used to guide responses. A similar inference is supported by the observation that, in hybrid choice Go/No-go tasks, the kinds of partial errors that follow a No-go stimulus represent activation of the response that would have been correct had the stimulus been a Go stimulus. Finally, we note that the human processing system is capable of monitoring its own behavior and of initiating remedial actions if necessary. The activity of an error-detection system, as revealed by measures of the error-related negativity, is related to the degree to which responses are slowed after errors.     

EMOTIONAL CONTAGION Gender and Occupational Differences

Theorists have proposed that men and women and those in various occupational groups should differ in their susceptibility to primitive emotional contagion. Study 1 was designed to explore the extent to which gender and occupation affected respondents' self-reports of emotional contagion, as measured by the Emotional Contagion (EC) scale. As predicted, women in a variety of occupations secured higher total EC scores than did men. Study 2 was designed to determine the extent to which gender affected self-reports of emotional contagion (again as measured by the EC scale) and actual responsiveness to others' emotions. As predicted, women received higher EC scores, reported sharing the targets' emotions to a greater extent, and were rated by judges as displaying more emotional contagion than did men.     

Can experimentally induced mood affect optimism and pessimism scores?

Subjects experienced one of three mood-induction procedures (music, video, or Velten; positive or negative valence) prior to responding to a recently developed instrument for measuring optimism and pessimism (O/P). Pre- and post-induction mood indices were also obtained via the MAACL-R and the Wessman-Ricks elation-depression measure. All three mood-induction procedures were effective in establishing the desired moods, with the video procedure the weakest. Music and Velten, but not video, affected optimism and pessimism scores, but for women only. The results suggest, contrary to a previous study, that the optimism/pessimism instrument is not impervious to momentary mood states, at least for women, thus somewhat reducing its temporal stability. By the same token, however, the results also lend support to the construct validity of the O/P instrument. This article is based on a thesis presented by the senior author to the Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the Degree of Master of Arts.     

Cognitive processes in well-defined and ill-defined problem solving

We investigated the relationship between two kinds of problem solving using Kitchener's model of hierarchical cognitive processing. We predicted that performance on well-defined problems (i. e. those with a single, guaranteed solution) would be independent of ill-defined problems (i. e. those with multiple, non-guaranteed solutions). We also predicted that self-reported epistemic beliefs (i. e. assumptions about the nature and acquisition of knowledge) would be related to ill-defined, but not well-defined, solutions. Results confirmed these predictions. We concluded that well-defined and ill-defined problems require separate cognitive processes and that epistemic beliefs play an important role in ill-defined problem solving. These findings supported Kitchener's three-level model of problem solving.     

Competing on all fronts: Achievement orientation and disordered eating

Strikingly high prevalence rates of symptoms of disordered eating among college women have been documented. The question arises as to whether one aspect of the college experience, achievement orientation, is associated with disordered eating. Competing hypotheses may be generated regarding the relationship between achievement orientation and disordered eating, with arguments for either a positive or negative relationship. The Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire (WOFO) and the Disordered Eating Symptoms Scale (DESS) were administered to 668 female undergraduate college students. Multivariate analysis of the WOFO subscales revealed that women with high levels of disordered eating obtained significantly higher scores on the Competitiveness subscale than women with low DESS scores. These findings support hypotheses of a positive relationship between competitiveness and disordered eating.     

Factors associated with responses to sexual harassment and satisfaction with outcome

This study examined contextual and behavioral factors and types of responses to sexual harassment in relation to harassed employees' satisfaction with the outcome of sexual harassment situations. Subjects were 105 male and female faculty and staff members (89.5% Caucasian; 5.7% multiethnic/multicultural; 4.8% unspecified) employed by a midwestern university who reported experiencing unwanted sexual attention on the job. Results undicated that employees responded more strongly to unwanted sexual behavior if they perceived it as sexual harassment and if they perceived their work climate as encouraging the problem. Harassed employees' gender, power, and perceptions of the work climate were all associated with their satisfaction with the situation outcome. Although making a formal or informal complaint was not associated with greater satisfaction, talking to the harasser without using aggressive communication strategies increased the likelihood of a satisfactory outcome for the employee. Talking to family or friends, a response used by women more often than men, was associated with dissatisfaction. Suggestions for further research are discussed.This research was primarily funded by the Center for Public Affairs Research at the University of Nebraska at Omaha. The authors gratefully acknowledge the research assistance of Jami Winters, Gena Ritter, Sarah Holmes, Kim Gangwish, and Mary Lou Costanzo.     

Storytelling and Coping With Stressful Events1

Three studies explored the coping benefits and limitations of stories people hear about others undergoing similar stressful events. In Study One, cancer patients reported that positive stories about other patients were preferable to and more helpful than negative stories, yet negative stories were more commonly told. Study Two manipulated the valence and source of stories told to college students facing midterm exams. Stories with positive endings and those relayed by expert sources were regarded more positively than negative stories and those told by nonexperts. Study Three manipulated the valence and informativeness of stories in a similar college sample. Positive and informative stories were rated more favorably, although these effects were independent of each other. Implications for social comparison and social support are discussed.     

Validation of a role-play measure of children's social skills

A videotape-administered role-play test of children's social skills was developed and its psychometric properties tested. Performance criteria for the test were derived from popular children's ratings of the effectiveness of different role-play responses. The test was administered to 157 fourth- and fifth-grade boys and girls who had been classified as popular, average, neglected, or rejected, on the basis of sociometric testing. The test evidenced good interrater, test-retest, and internal consistency reliabilities. Children's role-play performance correlated significantly with teacher ratings of social competence and with peer-liking ratings. Neglected children performed more poorly on the role-play test than popular children. When differences in intelligence among social status groups were statistically controlled, social status groups did not differ on the role-play test. Results of the discriminant analyses support the conclusion that teacher ratings are better than role-play tests for identifying rejected children, whereas role-play tests and measures of intelligence appear more accurate than teacher ratings for identifying neglected children.