Interdimensional interference in the Stroop effect: uncovering the cognitive and neural anatomy of attention

In the classic Stroop effect, naming the color of an incompatible color word (e.g. the word RED printed in green ink; say, 'green') is much slower and more error-prone than is naming the color of a control item (e.g. XXX or CAT printed in green; say 'green'). This seemingly simple interference phenomenon has long provided a fertile testing ground for theories of the cognitive and neural components of selective attention. We present a sketch of the behavioral phenomenon, focusing on the idea that the relative automaticity of the two dimensions determines the direction and the degree of interdimensional interference between them. We then present an outline of current parallel processing explanations that instantiate this automaticity account, and we show how existing interference data are captured by such models. We also consider how Stroop facilitation (faster response of 'red' to RED printed in red) can be understood. Along the way, we describe research on two tasks that have emerged from the basic Stroop phenomenon - negative priming and the emotional Stroop task. Finally, we provide a survey of brain imaging research, highlighting the possible roles of the anterior cingulate in maintaining attentional set and in processing conflict or competition situations.     

Health at work in the British National Health Service: A counselling response

This article outlines the historical context that led to an employee counselling service in an NHS Trust in the North East of England being established. It describes the process of implementation and development of the Service. It evaluates the Service using data collated from those using the Service and also client evaluation reports. It critically analyses the data collated from use of the Service after two years. The paper concludes that one of the key issues of the 'Health at Work in the NHS' Initiative--that of staff support--is continuing to be appropriately addressed through the presence of the Service. Although the future of the service is uncertain due to mergers within the Health Trust, indicators still show that staff value and benefit from the Service.     

Aging and attentional guidance during visual search: functional neuroanatomy by positron emission tomography

Positron emission tomography (PET) was used to examine adult age differences in neural activation during visual search. Target detection was less accurate for older adults than for younger adults, but both age groups were successful in using color to guide attention to a subset of display items. Increasing perceptual difficulty led to greater activation of occipitotemporal cortex for younger adults than for older adults, apparently as the result of older adults maintaining higher levels of activation within the easier task conditions. The results suggest that compensation for age-related decline in the efficiency of occipitotemporal cortical functioning was implemented by changes in the relative level of activation within this visual processing pathway, rather than by the recruitment of other cortical regions.     

The Nature and Meaning of the Near-Death Experience for Patients and Critical Care Nurses

This study was designed to develop a conceptual framework for the near-death experience (NDE), reflecting its nature and meaning for the patient and the critical care nurse. The study used naturalistic inquiry to examine the question: What is the nature and meaning of an NDE and how has it influenced the individual's view of the self, the future, and feelings and beliefs about life and death? The NDE Scale (Greyson, 1983) was used with patients and semi-structured interview guides were used with both nurses and patients to explore the NDE from a comprehensive perspective. An NDE was defined as the report of “unusual” recollections associated with a period of unconsciousness during either serious illness or injury, or resuscitation from a cardiac or respiratory arrest. The sample included 12 patients who experienced an NDE and 19 nurses who cared for patients who experienced NDEs. This study highlighted the emotional aspects of the NDE. Patients described how the NDE transformed their lives and nurses reported how their experiences with patients changed them personally and professionally.     

Symptom Properties as a Function of ADHD Type: An Argument for Continued Study of Sluggish Cognitive Tempo

Inconsistent alertness and orientation (sluggishness, drowsiness, daydreaming) were reported to accompany Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) without Hyperactivity in DSM-III. Such Sluggish Cognitive Tempo items were tested in the DSM-IV Field Trial for ADHD, but were discarded from the Inattention symptom list because of poor negative predictive power. Using 692 children referred to a pediatric subspecialty clinic for ADHD, Sluggish Tempo items were re-evaluated. When Hyperactivity–Impulsivity was absent (i.e., using only cases of Inattentive Type plus clinic controls), Sluggish Tempo items showed substantially improved utility as symptoms of Inattention. Factor analyses distinguished a Sluggish Tempo factor from an Inattention factor. When DSM-IV ADHD types were compared, Inattentive Type was uniquely elevated on Sluggish Tempo. These findings suggest that (a) Sluggish Tempo items are adequate symptoms for Inattentive Type, or (b) Sluggish Tempo may distinguish two subtypes of Inattentive Type. Either conclusion is incompatible with ADHD nosology in DSM-IV.     

Defending or relinquishing belief in occurrence for remembered events that are challenged: A social-cognitive model

We describe a social-cognitive model explaining processing of cognitive dissonance resulting from being told by someone that a vividly remembered event did not actually occur. The model proposes that receiving challenges to one's recollection of events results in both intrapersonal and interpersonal cognitive dissonance. Rememberers process intrapersonal dissonance by weighing features of memory representations against the qualities of the feedback, and they process interpersonal elements by weighing the potential costs of agreeing or disagreeing with the challenger within the social dynamics of the relationship. To resolve the dissonance, people will either maintain or reduce belief in occurrence for the event, and will agree or disagree with the challenger. We explore factors that can influence dissonance and how they impact the rememberers' beliefs in occurrence of the event and their interaction with challengers in terms of defending or relinquishing their memory, and we discuss preliminary data confirming some of these factors.     

The hard way

In order to model civility, progressive Christians must go against the grain and take “the hard way.”     

Preference for free or forced choice in Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii)

Empirical investigations of humans, pigeons, rats, and monkeys have indicated that these species will select free over forced choice, even when faced with identical outcomes. However, the same has yet to be quantitatively confirmed in nonhuman great apes. This experiment is the first systematic investigation of preference for free or forced choice in great apes using a paradigm in which extraneous variables are highly controlled. Three orangutans were given a choice of one of two virtual routes, one that provided a choice and one that did not via a touchscreen computer program. Choice of either route was rewarded with the same type and quantity of food. Initial results indicated a preference for free choice across all three participants. However, in two control conditions, orangutans' preferences varied, suggesting a weaker tendency to exercise choice than species previously tested. We suggest further investigation of preference for free and forced choice in orangutans and other great apes through alternative experimental paradigms that focus on increasing the fidelity of free and forced choice options.