The effects of attributions of intent and apology on forgiveness: When saying sorry may not help the story

Despite the oft-cited positive effects of an apology on forgiveness, forgiveness does not always follow. In three studies we tested the ironic notion that, following an interpersonal transgression, an apology following an attribution of intent might further hinder, rather than benefit, the forgiveness process. The findings of three studies were systematically replicated and supported our primary prediction that, following attributions of intent, saying sorry does not always lead to forgiveness. When offenders intentionally committed a transgression, forgiveness was less likely following an apology. However, when offenses were unintentional, forgiveness was more likely following an apology. We also showed that these effects were explained by participants’ impression of the transgressor.     

Performance,cardiovascular, and health behavior effects of an inhibitory strength training intervention

Female undergraduates were assigned to one of three groups, two involving regulatory training and one not. Training participants performed for 2 weeks tasks that required strong behavioral restraint (Strong Training) or weak behavioral restraint (Weak Training). Later, they took part in (1) a laboratory session in which they performed tasks with inhibitory components, and (2) a follow-up week in which they provided health behavior reports and used designated dental supplies. No Training participants took part only in the session and follow-up week. As expected, laboratory performance was improved for Strong- relative to No Training participants, with performance for Weak Training participants falling in between. Also as expected, Strong Training participants used more floss in the follow-up week than did the No Training participants, with floss for Weak Training participants falling between. Contrary to expectation, Strong Training participants used less toothpaste and reported having brushed less than the No Training participants. In addition, Strong Training participants evinced exaggerated—rather than diminished—cardiovascular responses during the laboratory tasks. The performance and floss use data support the suggestion that inhibitory system strength can be increased through use. The brushing and cardiovascular findings may be interpretable in inhibitory strength terms.     

Masculinity,femininity, academic performance,and health: Further evidence concerning the androgyny controversy1

Spence and Helmreich's (1978) claim that individual differences in four components of achievement motivation (mastery, work, competitiveness, and personal unconcern) are attributable to masculinity and femininity rather than to gender was generally supported, with one exception: Masculinity was associated with competitiveness for males but not for females. Furthermore, competitive women were more likely than noncompetitive women to have mental and physical health problems, but there was no such difference for males. In general, masculinity emerged as a beneficial constellation of traits for both males and females, correlating negatively with achievement conflicts and stress symptoms, and positively with mastery and work. Femininity, on the other hand, appeared to be a detrimental cluster of traits for both sexes, at least in terms of academic performance and health. Implications for the controversial concept of androgyny were discussed, and it was suggested that, in the future, research inspired by an ideal conception of adult behavior confront the ideal directly rather than describe it in terms of the traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity. Any such research effort will have to deal with the pivotal role of competitiveness.     

Changes in HIV treatment beliefs and sexual risk behaviors among gay and bisexual men, 1997-2005.

OBJECTIVE: Beliefs about HIV treatment effectiveness and the impact of HIV treatments on HIV transmission risks were initially related to sexual risk-taking in the late 1990s when multidrug HIV treatments first became available. This study examined changes in beliefs about the effects of HIV treatment for preventing HIV transmission and their association to sexual risk behaviors between the years 1997 and 2005. DESIGN: Anonymous surveys were administered to a convenience sample of gay and bisexual men attending a large community event in Atlanta, Georgia in 1997 (N = 498) and again at the same community event in 2005 (N = 448). Analyses were performed for men living with HIV/AIDS and for men who have not been diagnosed with HIV/AIDS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rates of unprotected anal intercourse in the previous 3 months. RESULTS: There were significant increases in high-risk sexual practices that coincided with increased beliefs that HIV treatments can reduce the chance of transmitting HIV. However, optimistic beliefs about the health benefits of HIV treatments decreased over the 8 years and were not related to risk behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Beliefs about how HIV treatments impact HIV infectiousness remain associated with HIV transmission risk behavior and interventions targeting at-risk as well as HIV-positive men who have sex with men must directly address these beliefs and perceptions.     

Self-Efficacy,Decision-Making,and Stages of Change: An Integrative Model of Physical Exercise1

Exercise has important health benefits but a large proportion of the population is physically inactive. We examined the stages of readiness to exercise and their relationship to self-efficacy, the costs and benefits of exercising, and self-report of physical activity in a sample of Rhode Island worksites. Using a three-step model-building approach, exploratory principal components analyses were followed by an examination of the stages of change model with confirmatory structural equation modeling procedures. The model was then examined with longitudinal data. Confirmatory and longitudinal analyses showed an excellent tit between the model and the data. Results indicated that the costs and benefits of exercise and self-efficacy for exercise were related to physical activity only indirectly, through the mediation of stage of readiness to exercise. Structural modeling fit indices revealed that much of the variation and covariation in physical activity was explained by the model. There is the potential to enhance the impact of exercise interventions, by targeting them so as to address factors related to these different stages of readiness.     

Marriage Between Jews and Non-Jews: Counseling Implications

This article considers the problems arising from cultural and religious differences in Jewish-non-Jewish marriage, briefly reviews the literature, and offers suggestions for assessment and treatment. Treatment requires dealing with family systems dynamics while educating the couple about the role of cultural difference in their relationship. The goal of treatment is to assist the couple to view their differences flexibly and use them to their advantage while they develop a blended culture that satisfies their individual and partnership needs, including the religious and spiritual.     

Gender differences in the development of relationships during late adolescence

Until recently, inadequate measures of affiliation need and relationship closeness hindered investigations into the social development of adolescents. For example, assumptions about gender differences (Douvan & Adelson, 1966; Gilligan, 1982) and age-related changes (Dunphy, 1972; Erikson, 1968; Newman & Newman, 1976) in affiliation need and relationship closeness have remained virtually untested. To better understand adolescent social behavior and test these assumptions, recently developed measures of affiliation need and interpersonal closeness were used to examine seventy-four 18- to 20-year-olds. In support of Erikson's theory, need for social comparison declined with age for both sexes. However, in support of Gilligan's theory, not only were females more attached to their partners, but these gender differences were most pronounced for the 18-year-olds. Finally, Dunphy's (1972) assumption that adolescents' need for stimulation peaks around age 18 or 19 and then declines, and Newman and Newman's (1976) position that need for emotional support declines in later adolescence, held true--but only for females.     

Maternal intrusive support in the academic context: transactional socialization processes

Although transactional models of socialization have received support, there has been little investigation of the processes involved. The goal of this research was to move in this direction in the context of the socialization of achievement. Mothers and their elementary school children (N = 166) took part in an 18-month longitudinal study including a 2-week daily checklist. The results suggested that children's low achievement elicits intrusive support from mothers through 2 mechanisms. Mothers worried over their children's performance, and this was associated with heightened intrusive support. Children's low achievement manifested itself in uncertainty, which was linked to heightened intrusive support. The achievement of children whose mothers frequently used intrusive support improved over time but did not exceed that of children whose mothers infrequently used intrusive support. Day-to-day analyses suggested that although intrusive support promotes success, it also fosters failure for low-achieving children.