Gender-role socialization and discipline processes in one- and two-parent families

Parental discipline and gender-role socialization are two interrelated normative processes that may be affected by family structure, parent gender, and child gender. To investigate these family processes and how they may differ depending on family composition, three groups of families (approximately 90% Caucasian) with 5-year-old children were studied: 67 two-parent families, 32 single-mother families, and 13 single-father families. In the two-parent families, mothers were focused on in 33 of the families and fathers were focused on in 34 of the families. Overall, gender-role socialization processes were affected by family structure and parent gender: Single-parent families and mothers had less traditional gender-role socialization than two-parent families and fathers. Family discipline processes were also affected by family structure, as single-parent families reported more positive behavior from their children and reported using more problem-solving strategies. Regardless of family structure, parents used different discipline strategies depending on the gender of parent and child. No evidence was found to suggest that gender-role socialization mediated the discipline process. Research for this article was sponsored by grants HD 19739 from the Center for Research for Mothers and Children, NICHD, U.S. PHS and MH 37911 from the Behavioral Sciences Research Branch, Family Processes Division, NIMH, U.S. PHS to the second author. Reporting of this research was partially supported by grant MH 46690, Prevention Research Branch, NIMH, U.S. PHS to Dr. John B. Reid. The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to several reviewers for comments on previous drafts of this article. Additionally, the authors are grateful to Margaret McKean for her editorial assistance. Actual items for any of the constructs used are available upon request.     

Multidimensional Assessment of Chronic Low Back Pain: Predicting Treatment Outcomes

This study explored responses of chronic low back pain patients to treatment for different types of patients (dysfunctional, interpersonally distressed, and minimizer/adaptive coper), as classified using the Multidimensional Pain Inventory (MPI). In addition, changes in MPI scores during treatment were examined separately for each patient type. Finally, this study explored the relationships between changes in MPI scores and physical improvement. Between-group differences in improvement were significant, with dysfunctional patients showing the most improvement on several scales. MPI scales that best predicted physical improvement differed according to patient type. Implications for treatment of low back pain patients are suggested, based upon differential reactions to treatment and different predictors of physical improvement for each patient group.     

Christianity,Personality and Concern about Environmental Pollution among 13‐ to 15‐year‐olds

A sample of 20,968 Year 9 and Year 10 pupils provided information about their concern regarding environmental pollution, belief in God, church attendance, prayer, and view on creationism. They also completed the short form Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The data demonstrate that (after taking into account sex, age and personality) belief in God, church attendance and personal prayer are all significant predictors of greater environmental concern. After taking these religious factors into account, however, creationist beliefs are irrelevant to environmental concern. These findings are discussed against the background of theory which criticises the Christian tradition for promoting environmental exploitation rather than environmental concern.     

A review of observer reactivity in adult-child interactions

The present article reviews studies which have examined the question of observer reactivity in adult-child interactions. Seventeen studies were located. Studies were classified according to the paradigm used to examine reactivity, the setting in which the study was conducted, the identification of the child as a behavior problem, and the occurrence and direction (i.e., increases or decreases in the observed behavior) of reactivity. The results indicated that the awareness paradigm has been employed most frequently, the laboratory has been the primary setting utilized, and problem and nonproblem children have been employed with approximately equal frequency. Reactivity was reported in about three-fourths of the studies. For adults positive and neutral verbal and physical behaviors were more reactive than negative behaviors. The positive and neutral behaviors typically increased in the observer's presence. For children conclusions are not warranted at this time as too few studies have examined children's behavior.Preparation of this article was supported in part by NIMH Grant MH28859-01.     

Sex-role identity,sex of other,and affective relationship as determinants of interpersonal conflict-management styles

Previous research in sex-role identity has explored behavioral differences in a variety of contexts. Only recently, however, have differences in interaction style been investigated. The study reported here was designed to assess behavioral differences in one important type of interaction: interpersonal conflict. Of 143 college students responding to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), a final sample of 57 subjects provided questionnaire data on five conflict-management modes in hypothetical conflicts with others who varied on factors of sex and affective relationship with respondent. Results of the MANOVA analysis suggested that feminine persons disapprove of competition more than persons of masculine and androgynous sex-role identification. The results further suggested that masculine persons may differentiate less between liked and disliked others in their competitive behavior than do feminine and androgynous persons. Finally, results suggested that conflicts with liked, as opposed to disliked, others are managed with less competition and more accommodation, collaboration, and compromise for all sex-role identity groups.     

Semantic effects in visual word detection with visual similarity controlled

In three experiments, subjects searched through word lists for a single target word. Search was faster when the target word belonged to a different semantic category from that of the background words with visual similarity controlled. This semantic effect increased with number of items to be searched through, and it obtained whether the target was cued visually or verbally. Semantic homogeneity within the background also speeded search, but only when subjects had no prior knowledge of the nature of a list. Several models of the semantic effect are described. All contrast the encoding of physical identity with the encoding of semantic attributes, but they differ in ascribing the effect to: (1) the relative access times for these codes, (2) the power of the codes in dealing with multiple comparisons, or (3) the attentional demands of comparison using different levels of code.     

How infants process addition and subtraction events

Three experiments are described that assess 5‐month‐old infants’ processing of addition and subtraction events similar to those reported by Wynn (1992a ). In Experiment 1, prior to each test trial, one group of infants was shown an addition event (1 + 1) while another group was shown a subtraction event (2 ? 1). On test trials, all infants were shown outcomes of 0, 1, 2 and 3. The results seemed to require one of two dual‐process models. One such model assumed that the infants could add and subtract but also had a tendency to look longer when more items were on the stage. The other model assumed that infants had a preference for familiarity along with the tendency to look longer when more items were on the stage. Experiments 2 and 3 examined the assumptions made by these two models. In Experiment 2, infants were given only the test trials they had received in Experiment 1. Thus, no addition and subtraction or familiarity was involved. In Experiment 3 infants were familiarized to either one or two items prior to each test trial, but experienced no actual addition or subtraction. The results of these two experiments support the familiarity plus more items to look at model more than the addition and subtraction plus more items to look at model. Taken together, these three experiments shed doubt on Wynn’s (1992a ) assertion that 5‐month‐old infants can add and subtract. Instead they indicate the importance of familiarity preferences and the fact that one should be cautious before assuming that young infants have sophisticated numerical abilities.     

Infant categorization of containment,support and tight‐fit spatial relationships

Two experiments examined infant categorization of containment, support or tight‐fit spatial relationships. English‐learning infants of 10 months (Experiment 1) and 18 months (Experiment 2) were habituated to four pairs of objects in one of these relationships. They were then tested with one event from habituation, one with novel objects in the familiar relationship, one with familiar objects in a novel relationship and one with novel objects in a novel relationship. Infants at both ages generalized their habituation of the containment relationship to novel objects in this relationship. In the support and tight‐fit conditions, the younger infants responded only to the novel objects in the test while the older infants responded to the novel relationship, but only with familiar objects. The results indicate that infants learn to categorize containment prior to support or tight‐fit relationships and suggest that infants can recognize a relationship between familiar objects prior to novel objects.     

The Relationship Between Psychological Well-Being and Christian Faith and Practice in an Australian Population Sample

A random sample of 989 adults in an Australian community survey completed the Bradburn Balanced Affect Scale together with three measures of Christian faith and practice: belief in God, personal prayer, and church attendance. The data demonstrated a positive association between all three religious measures and psychological well-being. The analysis helps to account for discrepant findings in previous research.