On the meaning of Maslach's three dimensions of burnout

The dimensionality of Maslach's (1982) 3 aspects of job burnout--emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment--was examined among a sample of supervisors and managers in the human services. A series of confirmatory factor analyses supported the 3-factor model, with the first 2 aspects highly correlated. The 3 aspects were found to be differentially related to other variables reflecting aspects of strain, stress coping, and self-efficacy in predictable and meaningful ways. Implications for better understanding the burnout process are discussed.     

Modeling signal features of escape response: effects of cessation conditioning in "learned helplessness" paradigm

Six experiments examined the effects of signaling the termination of inescapable shock (cessation conditioning) or shock-free periods (backward conditioning) on later escape deficits in the learned helplessness paradigm, using rats (Sprague-Dawley and Bantin-Kingman). A cessation signal prevented later performance deficits when highly variable inescapable shock durations were used during pretreatment. The inclusion of short minimum intertrial intervals during pretreatment did not alter the benefits of cessation conditioning but eliminated the protection afforded by a safety signal. The beneficial effects of both cessation and backward signals were eliminated when a single stimulus signaled shock termination and a shock-free period. Finally, a combination of cessation and backward signals was found to be most effective in immunizing against the effects of subsequent unsignaled, inescapable shock on later escape performance. These data suggest that cessation conditioning may be crucial to the prophylactic action of an escape response.     

The relations among cry characteristics, demographic variables, and developmental test scores in infants prenatally exposed to methadone

This study examined the relations among developmental test scores, infants' demographic characteristics, and cry features. Cry features were strongly related to developmental test scores at all ages, suggesting that use of the infants' cry characteristics can help to identify those infants at greatest risk for later developmental problems.     

GENDER COMPARISONS OF MATHEMATICS ATTITUDES AND AFFECT

This article reports the complex results of meta-analyses of gender differences in attitudes and affect specific to mathematics. Overall, effect sizes were small and were similar in size to gender differences in mathematics performance. When differences exist, the pattern is for females to hold more negative attitudes. Gender differences in self-confidence and general mathematics attitudes are larger among high school and college students than among younger students. Effect sizes for mathematics anxiety differ depending upon the sample (highly selected or general). One exception to the general pattern is in stereotyping mathematics as a male domain, where males hold much more stereotyped attitudes ( d = -.90). While affect and attitudes toward mathematics are not the only influences on the development of gender differences in mathematics performance, they are important, and both male and female affect and attitudes should be considered in conjunction with other social and political influences as explanations.     

Executive processing differences between learning-disabled,mildly retarded,and normal achieving children

This study examined possible executive processing differences between mildly retarded, learning-disabled, and normal achieving children. To this end, the groups were compared as to their ability to recall central and secondary words from base and elaborative sentences under conditions of high and low encoding effort. Executive processing was inferred from the children's ability to maintain optimal recall performance for central and secondary words. Groups were comparable in central recall, but differences in secondary recall occurred for the high- effort encoding condition. Qualitative differences related to the prioritizing of resources (as reflected in the correlation between central and secondary recall) and monitoring the transfer of information (as reflected from central and secondary recall insertions) were found between groups. The results were discussed in terms of an executive processing frame-work that views retarded children as suffering from inefficiencies related to the sharing of resources, whereas the learning-disabled children's inefficiencies were related to the discrimination of resources.The author is indebted to Karl Schemdli, Director of Special Education and Susan Swaim, Research Director, University of Northern Colorado Laboratory School, for their administration assistance in providing children for this study. The author is indebted to Dr. Jim Nicholes for his assistance in the data collection.     

Setting limits on children's behavior: The differential effects of controlling vs. informational styles on intrinsic motivation and creativity

The imposition of external constraints on an activity has frequently been shown to undermine intrinsic motivation. Given that limits must often be set upon peoples' activities, especially in parenting and education, the present study addressed the question of whether limits can be set without undermining intrinsic motivation for the activity being limited. Using cognitive evaluation theory, contrasting limit setting styles of either a controlling or informational nature, or no limits, were placed upon forty-four first- and second-grade children engaged in a painting activity. The intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, creativity, and quality of artistic production were expected to be decreased by controlling limits relative to informational and no-limits, which were not expected to differ from each other. The results provided substantial support for these predictions, suggesting that limits can be set without undermining intrinsic motivation if they are informational in nature. Support was also found for the consensual assessment of creativity method recently developed by Amabile (1982a). Results of the study are discussed along with the general relation between creativity and intrinsic motivation.     

Sex differences in motor performance of young children: Fact or fiction?

Prepubescent boys and girls who had participated for one or more years in a coeducational physical education program were classified by grade (3, 4, and 5) and year (1977, 1978, and 1979). Scores from the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test were analyzed for differences. Results indicated that females at prepubescent ages may be expected to perform at similar levels to boys of the same age on most test items. While differences were not significant, girls in 1979 were actually better than boys of the same age from the two previous years.     

The use of a portable delayed auditory feedback unit in stuttering therapy

A portable on-the-body delayed auditory feedback was used in the establishment and transfer modes of fluent speech in a stutterer while he was on the Monterey Fluency Program. The performance of the client was compared with a “standard” population of stutterers. The portable DAF was comparable to the larger DAF in establishment and superior in transfer with minimal behavioral and technical problems. Use and potential value of the portable DAF in transfer and maintenance phases of therapy are discussed.     

Aptitude-related differences in auditory recognition masking

An auditory backward recognition masking task (Massaro, 1970) was administered to undergraduates selected for extreme scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test and the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test. In two experiments, significant group differences were found in threshold interstimulus intervals (ISIs) required for 75% correct tone recognition. High-aptitude subjects required less time for correct identification of target tones as “high” or “low”. They were more able to overcome the constraints imposed on time-dependent information processing by a masking tone. These group differences were interpreted as indicating better information processing efficiency (h (higher signal-to-noise ratio) in the high-aptitude subjects.     

Personality correlates of occupational status according to Holland types

The present investigation sought to identify personality correlates of occupational status. Because occupational status is a direct function of occupation, the relationship between personality and status was examined both within and across occupational groups using Holland's 1973 typology. Four two-way analyses of covariance of 16PF (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, Form A) second-order personality factors were performed using data from 175 employed adult males. No single personality factor was associated with status across occupational types. Among Social occupations, the low-status group had higher Extraversion and lower Anxiety scores than the high-status group. In general, the relationship between personality factors and occupational types provided additional confirmation of Holland's theory using an employed adult sample.