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Among the theories that address the impact of variations in immediacy behaviors during ongoing interactions are expectancy violations (EV) and discrepancy arousal (DA) theories. This study of the effects of violations of expectations on arousal, reciprocity, and compensation in the medical practitioner-patient relationship contrasts EV predictions with DA predictions. EV theory predicts that given a communicator with high reward valence, high and very high involvement (including touch and close proximity) should be met with reciprocation (increased involvement), and low and very low involvement should be met with compensation (increased involvement). DA theory predicts compensating very high involvement with decreased involvement, reciprocating high involvement with increased involvement, compensating low involvement with increased involvement, and reciprocating very low involvement, with decreased involvement. Results supported neither theory as all involvement changes were met with reciprocity. Additionally, although all violations/discrepancies were followed by changes in arousal, size of arousal change was not monotonically related to size of involvement change, as predicted by DA theory. Finally, although positive versus negative emotional experiences were not related to physiological indicators of arousal change, size of involvement change was directly related to the experience of positive and negative emotions. Thus, it appears that involvement change size directly predicts emotional experience and is not mediated by arousal change. 相似文献
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The intra- and interspecific aggressive behavior of Formica polyctena, a species of the Formica rufa group, was analyzed and quantified both in the laboratory and in the field. This behavior was used as a potential taxonomic tool for gaining a better understanding of the phyletic relationships among the species within the group. No overt aggression was recorded toward members of the same species. To examine interspecific relationships, F. polyctena was first confronted with F. cunicularia, to ascertain its aggressiveness toward a distantly related species. All such encounters led immediately to overt and prolonged attacks with virtually no initial mutual inspection. This suggests that recognition of strangeness of the unrelated species is almost immediate in F. polyctena, as previously observed in F. lugubris and F. rufa toward the same antagonist. Subsequently, F. polyctena was contrasted with F. lugubris and F. rufa (also belonging to the F. rufa group) in order to compare these related species. Fierce attacks accompanied by all the elements of conflict behavior were observed in all encounters. Moreover, the degree of aggression in the field was higher than in laboratory-paired ants, possibly because of a territorial effect. These data and our previous and similar research indicate that the relationships between F. lugubris and F. rufa are closer than between these two species and F. polyctena. In considering different viewpoints on this problem, the validity of the aggression test is discussed and the opportunity to compare levels of aggressiveness among strictly sympatric samples of red wood ant species gathered from the same ecological environment are considered. 相似文献
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长期以来,学术界对民初中国灵学问题的研究主要围绕中国近代史和伪科学角度展开,在着眼于批判的基础上逐渐勾勒出其大体轮廓,为下一步研究提供了借鉴。同时,这些研究在资料发掘与史实描述、分析视角与问题意识等方面,仍有补充和转换的空间。 相似文献
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传统认识中,一般认为《关于费尔巴哈的提纲》"在其现实性上,它是一切社会关系的总和",可以作为马克思与费尔巴哈理论分野的重要标志。但是,这忽视了《巴黎手稿》中,马克思承认费尔巴哈已经表述了同样的思想。在社会理论上,马克思真正超越费尔巴哈之处,在于《提纲》第六条的"批判"和第七条的"一定的社会形式"。依托这两个概念,马克思通过分析具体的、阶段性的社会形式,追求社会形态进步的基本取向,彰显了历史唯物主义的基本思想。对这方面的重新厘清,对今日中国现实启蒙和现代化批判具有极大的借鉴意义。 相似文献
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