Explaining lower-order traits through higher-order factors: the case of trait procrastination,conscientiousness, and the specificity dilemma

In proposing that the higher-order factor (lack of) Conscientiousness is the major proximal source of the lower-order trait procrastination, this study set up three approaches to examine this question: the degree to which a measure of the factor would parallel a measure of the trait in predicting dilatory behaviour and negative affect, the degree to which the factor would replace the trait in these predictions, and the extent to which the relations of the trait and the factor to negative affect would be mediated by Neuroticism. University students, 232 females and 48 males, completed a trait procrastination scale and the Conscientiousness and Neuroticism factor scales of the NEO-PI-R. They also responded to a measure of dilatory behaviour concerning their academic work, and to a measure of negative affect involving dejection and agitation. Trait procrastination was negatively related to the Conscientiousness factor and to each of its facets. Relations of trait procrastination and of Conscientiousness tended to parallel one another. Indicative of the specificity dilemma, trait procrastination outperformed Conscientiousness in predicting trait-specific dilatory behaviour. On the other hand, Conscientiousness was the better predictor of dejection. The mediating role of Neuroticism tended to be comparable in linking both the trait and the factor to negative affect. Discussion centres on additional ways to overcome the specificity dilemma when attempting to locate the proximal source of a lower-order trait within a higher-order factor. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multimethod Assessment of Psychopathology Among DSM-IV Subtypes of Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Self-, Parent, and Teacher Reports

Using data based on self-, parent, and teacher reports, we assessed various aspects of psychopathology in a large sample of control children and those with ADHD. Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to extract response bias from latent constructs of aggression, anxiety, attention problems, depression, conduct disorder, and hyperactivity. These latent constructs were then entered into logistic regression equations to predict membership in control versus ADHD groups, and to discriminate between ADHD subtypes. Results of the regression equations showed that higher levels of attention problems and aggression were the best predictors of membership in the ADHD group relative to controls. Logistic regression also indicated that a higher degree of aggression was the only significant predictor of membership in the ADHD-Combined group compared to the ADHD-Inattentive group. However, when comorbid diagnoses of Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder were controlled for in the logistic regression, greater hyperactivity rather than aggression was the sole variable with which to distinguish the ADHD-Combined from the ADHD-Inattentive subtype. Results are discussed in the context of the DSM-IV ADHD nosology and the role of instrument and source bias in the diagnosis of ADHD.     

EEG alpha reactivity and extraversion-introversion

Spectral characteristics of spontaneous EEG and characteristics of the alpha attenuation response (AAR) induced by acoustic stimulation, were analyzed for two groups of subjects selected on the basis of their scores on the extraversion-introversion scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. While no significant differences were found in basic alpha rhythm, significant differences were manifested in the AAR characteristics. Extraverted subjects habituated to the auditory stimulus while introverts did not. Introverts were generally more responsive to stimulation. The results are discussed in relation to the arousability model proposed by Eysenck and Gray, verifying the relationships with typological dimensions of Superior Nervous Activity, elaborated by the Soviet school.     

Identification of the 1PL Model with Guessing Parameter: Parametric and Semi-parametric Results

In this paper, we study the identification of a particular case of the 3PL model, namely when the discrimination parameters are all constant and equal to 1. We term this model, 1PL-G model. The identification analysis is performed under three different specifications. The first specification considers the abilities as unknown parameters. It is proved that the item parameters and the abilities are identified if a difficulty parameter and a guessing parameter are fixed at zero. The second specification assumes that the abilities are mutually independent and identically distributed according to a distribution known up to the scale parameter. It is shown that the item parameters and the scale parameter are identified if a guessing parameter is fixed at zero. The third specification corresponds to a semi-parametric 1PL-G model, where the distribution G generating the abilities is a parameter of interest. It is not only shown that, after fixing a difficulty parameter and a guessing parameter at zero, the item parameters are identified, but also that under those restrictions the distribution G is not identified. It is finally shown that, after introducing two identification restrictions, either on the distribution G or on the item parameters, the distribution G and the item parameters are identified provided an infinite quantity of items is available.     

Parent-school relationships and children's academic and social outcomes in public school pre-kindergarten

Two dimensions of parent-school relationships, parental school involvement and parents' perceptions of teacher responsiveness to child/parent, were examined in state-funded pre-kindergarten classrooms in a large urban school district. Children's social and academic outcomes were individually assessed in the fall and spring. Hierarchical Linear Modeling analyses revealed that parental school involvement positively predicted children's social skills (d = .55) and mathematics skills (d = .36), and negatively predicted problem behaviors (d = .47). Perceived teacher responsiveness to child/parent was positively related to children's early reading (d = .43), and social skills (d = .43), and negatively to problem behaviors (d = .61). All analyses controlled for quality of teacher interaction with children in the classroom, parental home involvement, parental education level, and child race/ethnicity.     

Going beyond the facts: Young children extend knowledge by integrating episodes

The major question posed in this research was whether 4- and 6-year-olds productively extend their knowledge by integrating information acquired in separate episodes. The vehicle was a read-aloud activity during which children were presented with a novel fact in each of two passages. In Experiment 1, both age groups showed evidence of integration between the passages. For the 6-year-olds, the evidence came in the form of responses to open-ended questions. The 4-year-olds recognized the correct answers but did not generate them in the open-ended question format. The 6-year-olds who generated the correct answers also were likely to recall both of the individual facts presented in the passages. In Experiment 2, we tested whether the 4-year-olds’ integration performance would improve if their memory for the individual facts improved. Extra exposure to the individual facts resulted in higher levels of integration performance in both recall and recognition testing. The roles of memory and other potential sources of age-related differences in integration performance are discussed.     

Seeing the language: a diagrammatic approach to natural discourse

The key idea behind the diagrammatic approach presented in the paper is that the sophisticated mechanisms of human visual construction also play an important role in natural languages. We propose a diagrammatic representation of English, giving examples, translation rules, and semantics. Special attention will be paid to anaphoric phenomena, in particular, the possibility of a uniform treatment of anaphoric pronouns.     

Counseling in Singapore

Singapore, a tiny island nation, rose from 3rd‐ to 1st‐world status in just 3 decades. Unlike in most developed countries, counseling in Singapore has a short history with faith‐based beginnings and currently faces challenges to remain culturally relevant. The authors trace the development of Singapore's counseling services, provide an update regarding counseling practices in the school and community, and describe counseling and its relation to psychology in the educational setting. The authors conclude by examining professional issues and future directions.     

Social Identity Theory: a critical synthesis of its bases, evidence and controversies

The social identity theory (SIT) and the self-categorization theory have had considerable influence on contemporary Social Psychology, making notable contributions to our understanding of the social dimension of behaviour. In the present work, we summarise the bases of these theories and critically review the most controversial elements of SIT, exploring its limits and potential. As shown here, the literature offers a heterogeneous body of research that includes outstanding efforts of synthesis and integration, but also numerous fragmentary studies and decontextualized interpretations that have generated distorted views of group behaviour. Taking into account the multidimensional, contextually mediated, dynamic and functional nature of identitary processes, which clearly emerge in the most serious works in the field, there is obviously a need to review the epistemological and methodological tools currently employed, with a view to developing practices that allow the study of group phenomena in a manner more suited to their complexity.