Empathy theory and practice: a survey of psychologists and counselors

Psychologists and counselors completed a questionnaire devised by the authors to explore the relationships between their extent of endorsement of empathy definitions, their use and views of empathy, and their identification with theories of psychotherapy. Results from 565 respondents suggested that those who identified with humanistic/experiential and psychodynamic theories seemed to have similar views of how empathy is defined and viewed and reported that they use empathy more than those with other theoretical inclinations. These findings suggest that there is some consistency between theoretical identification and definition, as well as reported use and views of empathy.     

Context effects in visual length perception: role of ocular,retinal, and spatial location

In three experiments, we examined the transfer of orientation-contingent context effects between the eyes and across portions of the retina with or without variation in external spatial location. Previous research had shown that vertical lines are judged long, relative to horizontal lines, when the stimulus set comprises relatively long horizontals and short verticals (Contextual Condition B), as compared with the reverse when the stimulus set comprises relatively short horizontals and long verticals (Contextual Condition A). Consequently, the contextual set of stimuli influences the magnitude of the horizontal-vertical illusion (HVI), decreasing its size under Contextual Condition A and increasing its size under Contextual Condition B. Experiment 1 showed that exposing one eye to different stimulus contexts modulated the size of the HVI at the exposed eye but had little or no effect at the other eye. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that the effect of the contextual sets generalized poorly across adjacent portions of the retina but transferred almost perfectly across different locations in external space when retinal location was constant. Thus, orientation-contingent context effects in visual length perception appear to be specific to the eye and to the region of the retina stimulated, suggesting that these effects reflect relatively early and local changes in sensitivity, rather than relatively late and general shifts in response criteria.     

Visual speech information for face recognition

Two experiments test whether isolated visible speech movements can be used for face matching. Visible speech information was isolated with a point-light methodology. Participants were asked to match articulating point-light faces to a fully illuminated articulating face in an XAB task. The first experiment tested single-frame static face stimuli as a control. The results revealed that the participants were significantly better at matching the dynamic face stimuli than the static ones. Experiment 2 tested whether the observed dynamic advantage was based on the movement itself or on the fact that the dynamic stimuli consisted of many more static and ordered frames. For this purpose, frame rate was reduced, and the frames were shown in a random order, a correct order with incorrect relative timing, or a correct order with correct relative timing. The results revealed better matching performance with the correctly ordered and timed frame stimuli, suggesting that matches were based on the actual movement itself. These findings suggest that speaker-specific visible articulatory style can provide information for face matching.     

The early oedipal situation: developmental, theoretical, and clinical implications

The Oedipus complex is typically thought to begin in the phallic phase, when the child's relationship to the parents as a couple achieves central prominence. In contrast, the author views the appearance of oedipal conflicts in the phallic phase as the end point of a line of development of triangular relatedness that began in infancy. An aspect of the Kleinian view of the oedipal situation--that awareness of the parents as a couple begins in the preoedipal period--deserves serious consideration. A patient is presented for whom the working through of early oedipal issues in the transference-counter-transference permitted recovery from withdrawal into a fantasy world.     

Changes to acoustic communication systems in human-altered environments

Animal communication systems have become closely tuned to local habitat conditions as populations have adjusted to different long-term environmental pressures. However, many habitats are now rapidly changing because of anthropogenic modification. Maintenance of effective communication systems in greatly altered environments will depend on communicative responses on both evolutionary and ontogenetic time scales. Consideration of potential acoustic challenges caused by human-generated habitat modification has important implications for basic research and conservation biology. First, the observed signal structure of individuals in altered environments may not match the normally hypothesized call structure. Second, species that either possess little ability to adapt quickly on an evolutionary time scale or have little plasticity in their communicative systems may be unable to respond to large anthropogenic alterations in their acoustic environment.     

Beyond conflict of interest: the responsible conduct of research

This paper reports data and scholarly opinion that support the perception of systemic flaws in the management of scientific professions and the research enterprise; explores the responsibility that professional status places on the scientific professions, and elaborates the concept of the responsible conduct of research (RCR). Data are presented on research misconduct, availability of research guidelines, and perceived research quality. An earlier version of this paper was presented at an International Conference on “Conflict of Interest and its Significance in Science and Medicine” held in Warsaw, Poland, 5–6 April, 2002. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Office of Research Integrity, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or any other federal agency.     

The American experience: Lessons learned

This paper discusses ten lessons learned since 1989 about handling allegations of scientific misconduct involving biomedical and behavioral research supported by the U. S. Public Health Service. An earlier version of this paper was presented at a symposium, Scientific Misconduct: An International Perspective, organised by The Medical University of Warsaw, 16 November, 1998. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Office of Research Integrity, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or any other federal agency.     

Variation in test validity with variation in the distribution of item difficulties,number of items,and degree of their intercorrelation

The relation between item difficulty distributions and the validity and reliability of tests is computed through use of normal correlation surfaces for varying numbers of items and varying degrees of item intercorrelations. Optimal or near optimal item difficulty distributions are thus identified for various possible item difficulty distributions. The results indicate that, if a test is of conventional length, is homogeneous as to content, and has a symmetrical distribution of item difficulties, correlation with a normally distributed perfect measure of the attribute common to the items does not vary appreciably with variation in the item difficulty distribution. Greater variation was evident in correlation with a second duplicate test (reliability). The general implications of these findings and their particular significance for evaluating techniques aimed at increasing reliability are considered.