PUTTING PRESUPPOSITIONS ON THE TABLE: WHY THE FOUNDATIONS MATTER

Abstract. Over time scientists have developed an effective investigative process that includes the acceptance of particular basic presuppositions, methods, content, and theories. The deeply held presuppositions are the philosophical foundation of scientific thought and do much to define the field's worldview. These fundamental assumptions can be esoteric for many and can become a source of conflict when they are not commonly shared with other points of view. Such presuppositions affect the observations, the conclusions drawn, and the positions taken. Furthermore, in some cases presuppositions in science have undergone important shifts in meaning, causing an increasing dissonance. We argue that disputes in religion and science often are due to these very basic differences in philosophy that are held by members in the different communities. To better understand the nature of science and its differences with religious views, presuppositions rather than conclusions should be articulated and examined for validity and scope of application.     

Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: implications for self-esteem

In 3 studies, the authors tested the hypothesis that discrimination targets' worldview moderates the impact of perceived discrimination on self-esteem among devalued groups. In Study 1, perceiving discrimination against the ingroup was negatively associated with self-esteem among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview (e.g., believed that individuals of any group can get ahead in America and that success stems from hard work) but was positively associated with self-esteem among those who rejected this worldview. Study 2 showed that exposure to discrimination against their ingroup (vs. a non-self-relevant group) led to lower self-esteem, greater feelings of personal vulnerability, and ingroup blame among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview but to higher self-esteem and decreased ingroup blame among Latino Americans who rejected it. Study 3 showed that compared with women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is pervasive, women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is rare had higher self-esteem if they endorsed a meritocracy worldview but lower self-esteem if they rejected this worldview. Findings support the idea that perceiving discrimination against one's ingroup threatens the worldview of individuals who believe that status in society is earned but confirms the worldview of individuals who do not.     

PET studies of language: An assessment of the reliability of the technique

In order to understand the basis of language in the brain, we must be able to describe the neurological systems that are used in language comprehension and production. In this paper, one technique for functional neuroimaging is discussed: measurement of blood flow change using positron emission tomography (PET). Two experiments were carried out investigating the usefulness of this method. One experiment examined the intrinsic time limitations of blood flow change as a measure of cognitive activity. A second issue considered is the replicability of the results obtained using this method. A comparison of two experiments containing the same conditions suggests that the results are replicable, when the experiments and method are similar. One case is discussed where the experiments differ; it is suggested that this is due to a difference in the materials used in the experiments, and that the difference has a principled basis.     

Variations in the Gender-Stereotyped Content of Children's Television Cartoons Across Genres

This study examined the gender-stereotyped content of children's TV network cartoons across 4 genres: traditional adventure (e.g., "Spiderman"), nontraditional adventure (e.g., "Reboot"), educational/family (e.g., "Magic School Bus"), and comedy ("Animaniacs"). Acting negatively, showing physical aggression, and being a victim were significantly less likely in the educational/family genre cartoons than any of the other three genres. Demonstrating romantic behavior was significantly more likely in the traditional adventure and the comedy genres than the other genres. Male characters were represented in cartoons significantly more than were female characters, but only in the traditional adventure and the comedy genres. Male characters were more likely than were female characters to use physical aggression, but only in the traditional adventure genre. Behaviors that were relatively more likely among female characters across genres included showing fear, acting romantic, being polite, and acting supportive. Most of the significant differences were also associated with very large effect sizes.     

Brief counseling to reduce AIDS risk in intravenous drug users and their sexual partners: Preliminary results

Intravenous drug users (N = 88) and their sexual partners (N = 45) were randomly assigned to either a brief counseling intervention or an information-brochure only condition (aimed at reducing behavioral risk for HIV infection). At 10 day follow-up, intravenous drug users exposed to brief counseling were more knowledgeable about risk behaviors, and reported higher levels of self-efficacy and communication skill, and more frequent use of condoms and sterilisation of needles. At 90 day follow-up, intravenous drug users were more accepting of guidelines to reduce sex-related risk and reported greater self-efficacy in relation to drugs. Sexual partners who received brief counseling showed a small reduction in unprotected sex (at 90-day follow-up), while those receiving brochures were slightly less likely to use condoms. Methodological problems of the study are discussed.     

A short-term group therapy model for treatment of adult female survivors of childhood incest

Childhood incest has been experienced by a minimum of one million American women. Because of the dynamic of secrecy in these families and society's discomfort with the issue, disclosure frequently does not take place until adulthood. A treatment modality for adult women following disclosure of a childhood incest experience has been devised. A short-term semi-structured group model has been chosen which creates an atmosphere of rapid cohesion and helps participants broaden their identity beyond that of victim. This paper reports participants' demographic and historical data as well as thematic content and group evaluative data from the first nine such groups conducted in a major health maintenance organization in the Boston area. Findings suggest that childhood incest has widespread and long-lasting effects on women's functioning, including ability to trust and form relationships, emotional functioning and self-esteem, and the ability to protect self and children from victimization. The group was felt to be extremely valuable by the majority of participants and was experienced by many as the first place they ever found safety, unconditional nurturance, and a sense of belonging. Other findings include the repetition of incest over generations, the nonresponsiveness of adults in cases where disclosure had taken place in childhood, and the importance of an empathic yet well-bounded therapist.     

Body image,self-esteem,and depression-proneness: Closing the gender gap

Gender differences in body image and related correlates have received increasing attention in recent psychological research. The purposes of the present study were to further examine gender differences in body image and its relationship to depression-proneness and self-esteem. The Body Cathexis Scale, the Depression-Proneness Inventory, the Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale, and a background questionnaire were administered to 176 female and male undergraduates at a small Midwestern college. Responses were analyzed by gender and by participants' perceived and actual weight. Findings were consistent with sociocultural messages, and showed a pervasive preoccupation with weight and appearance for both men and women. The importance of considering weight, environment, and other demographic data when studying body image is discussed.All authors contributed equally. Authorship order was determined by coin toss.We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Laurie Phillips in the data collection for this study.     

A Field Study of Conflict in Psychological Exchange: The California Taxpayers' Revolt

The present research applied an exchange analysis to the confrontation between California renters and landlords after the passage of a property tax initiative (Proposition 13). The inability of renters to leave the exchange intensified perceived inequities. As a result, both parties sought solutions to perceived inequities by changing the existing relationship. As predicted, renters and landlords disagreed on the relative importance of exchange inputs and the actions needed to restore equity to their relationship. Relationships examined were consistent with a psychological contract in which renters were blocked from leaving. This interpretation suggests that changes in the intrinsic nature of the psychological contract may be needed to avoid future conflict.