Prejudice Toward Female Leaders: Backlash Effects and Women’s Impression Management Dilemma

Women who pursue or possess power are at risk for backlash, defined as social and economic penalties for defying stereotypic expectations ( Rudman, 1998 ). Rule-based gender stereotypes stipulate acceptable behaviors for women and men and when these rules are violated, perceivers react negatively. We review research demonstrating the Catch-22 that female leaders face, such that they are required to display agency to overcome the lack of fit between their gender and leadership yet when they do so, they risk prejudice and hiring discrimination (i.e., backlash). Our review reveals how this dilemma encumbers women in all aspects of their career. We consider factors that moderate the likelihood of backlash effects and describe recent research that sheds light on the mechanisms responsible for negative reactions toward women striving for positions of power. Finally, we discuss the implications of backlash for preserving stereotypes in the culture-at-large and the gender status quo and suggest directions for future research.     

PUTTING PRESUPPOSITIONS ON THE TABLE: WHY THE FOUNDATIONS MATTER

Abstract. Over time scientists have developed an effective investigative process that includes the acceptance of particular basic presuppositions, methods, content, and theories. The deeply held presuppositions are the philosophical foundation of scientific thought and do much to define the field's worldview. These fundamental assumptions can be esoteric for many and can become a source of conflict when they are not commonly shared with other points of view. Such presuppositions affect the observations, the conclusions drawn, and the positions taken. Furthermore, in some cases presuppositions in science have undergone important shifts in meaning, causing an increasing dissonance. We argue that disputes in religion and science often are due to these very basic differences in philosophy that are held by members in the different communities. To better understand the nature of science and its differences with religious views, presuppositions rather than conclusions should be articulated and examined for validity and scope of application.     

Children's and adults' judgments of equitable resource distributions

This study explored the criteria that children and adults use when evaluating the niceness of a character who is distributing resources. Four- and five-year-olds played the 'Giving Game', in which two puppets with different amounts of chips each gave some portion of these chips to the children. Adults played an analogous task that mimicked the situations presented to children in the Giving Game. For all groups of participants, we manipulated the absolute amount and proportion of chips given away. We found that children and adults used different cues to establish which puppet was nicer: 4-year-olds focused exclusively on absolute amount, 5-year-olds showed some sensitivity to proportion, and adults focused exclusively on proportion. These results are discussed in light of their implications for equity theory and for theories of the development of social evaluation.     

Gendering career capital: An investigation of scientific careers

In this article we reflect on the increasingly popular concept of career capital, and apply the concept to data generated with a sample of women scientists. We propose that by examining career capital through a ‘gendered lens’ we can provide insight into structural constraint, often missing in discussions of this concept. Based on the findings from in-depth interviews with 31 women scientists, ranging from post-doctoral researcher to professor, we argue that even within occupational fields the notion of capital must be seen as differentiated, not only in terms of its meaning and expression within these fields, but also in terms of its availability. Thus we suggest that in analyzing careers we should examine deficits and impediments alongside capital, whilst maintaining awareness of social structural constraint.     

An investigation of extreme responding as a mediator of cognitive therapy for depression

Although the efficacy of Cognitive Therapy (CT) for depression is well documented, questions remain about the conditions under which CT is maximally effective, and the mechanisms by which CT is efficacious. This study examined the role of extreme responding (ER) as a mediator and predictor of relapse, as well as a predictor of acute treatment outcome. To test mediation, ER of participants in CT was compared to ER of participants receiving Behavioral Activation (BA). Results indicated that ER was not a mediator of relapse in either condition. Both CT and BA showed reductions in depression severity, however neither group showed significant changes in ER over the course of treatment. Finally, ER did not predict or moderate acute treatment outcome. The implications of these results, strengths and limitations of the current study, and future research directions are discussed.     

BODY IMAGE AND DISORDERED EATING AMONG ASIAN AMERICAN AND CAUCASIAN COLLEGE STUDENTS

Using a sample of Caucasian and Asian American college students, this research examined gender differences within race and race differences within gender with respect to a wide range of body image and disordered eating variables. Results indicated that: (a) regardless of race, women reported more problem attitudes and behaviors than did men; (b) gender differences were similar for Asian Americans and Caucasians, although Caucasians evidenced slightly more gender differences than did Asian Americans; (c) for men, race made no difference; and (d) for women, some race differences were found, with Caucasian women engaging in more dieting and binging behavior and Asian American women reporting lower self-esteem and less satisfaction with their racially defined features. Suggestions for future research are made, and implications are discussed.     

Nocturnality as a Defensive Behavior in the Rat: An Analysis in Terms of Selective Association Between Light and Aversive Stimulation

The Psychological Record - One striking aspect of the rat’s daily activity pattern is its strong nocturnal tendency. The present research tests the assumption that nocturnality in the rat...     

Developmental Strategies for Counseling the Child Whose Parent or Sibling Has Cancer

The author presents the emotional and behavioral profile of the well child whose parent or sibling has been diagnosed with cancer. Symptoms of significant distress in such children are often overlooked by attending adults. Developmentally appropriate counseling interventions that can be used by the counselor to meet the special needs of this population are proposed within an adaptation-based model.     

Exposure to graphic warning labels on cigarette packages: Effects on implicit and explicit attitudes towards smoking among young adults

Objective: To test the effect of exposure to the US Food and Drug Administration’s proposed graphic images with text warning statements for cigarette packages on implicit and explicit attitudes towards smoking.

Design and methods: A two-session web-based study was conducted with 2192 young adults 18–25-years-old. During session one, demographics, smoking behaviour, and baseline implicit and explicit attitudes were assessed. Session two, completed on average 18 days later, contained random assignment to viewing one of three sets of cigarette packages, graphic images with text warnings, text warnings only, or current US Surgeon General’s text warnings. Participants then completed post-exposure measures of implicit and explicit attitudes. ANCOVAs tested the effect of condition on the outcomes, controlling for baseline attitudes.

Results: Smokers who viewed packages with graphic images plus text warnings demonstrated more negative implicit attitudes compared to smokers in the other conditions (p = .004). For the entire sample, explicit attitudes were more negative for those who viewed graphic images plus text warnings compared to those who viewed current US Surgeon General’s text warnings (p = .014), but there was no difference compared to those who viewed text-only warnings.

Conclusion: Graphic health warnings on cigarette packages can influence young adult smokers’ implicit attitudes towards smoking.