The proximity structure of achromatic surface colors and the impossibility of asymmetric lightness matching

In asymmetric lightness matching tasks, observers sometimes report that they cannot achieve satisfactory matches between achromatic surfaces under different neutral illuminants. The surfaces appear different, yet no further adjustment of either surface improves the match. There are evident difficulties in interpreting data from a task that the observer cannot always do, and these difficulties likely affect the interpretation of a large number of previous studies. We investigated, as an alternative to asymmetric matching, the direct use of proximity judgments in the study of surface lightness perception. We asked observers to rate the perceived dissimilarity of pairs of achromatic surfaces that were placed in identical scenes and viewed under different neutral illuminants. We develop a parametric model that accurately predicts perceived dissimilarity in terms of physical light intensities and surface albedos. The parameters of this model are readily interpretable. In particular, the ratio of the influence of changes in illuminant intensity and changes in surface albedo is a measure of the extent to which the observer discounts the illuminant. Asymmetric lightness matching can be interpreted as an unachievable limiting case of proximity judgment.     

Humans rapidly estimate expected gain in movement planning

We studied human movement planning in tasks in which subjects selected one of two goals that differed in expected gain. Each goal configuration consisted of a target circle and a partially overlapping penalty circle. Rapid hits into the target region led to a monetary bonus; accidental hits into the penalty region incurred a penalty. The outcomes assigned to target and penalty regions and the spatial arrangement of those regions were varied. Subjects preferred configurations with higher expected gain whether selection involved a rapid pointing movement or a choice by key press. Movements executed to select one of two goal configurations exhibited the same movement dynamics as pointing movements directed at a single configuration, and were executed with the same high efficiency. Our results suggest that humans choose near-optimal strategies when planning their movement, and can base their selection of strategy on a rapid judgment about the expected gain associated with possible movement goals.     

Radical concept nativism

Radical concept nativism is the thesis that virtually all lexical concepts are innate. Notoriously endorsed by Jerry Fodor, radical concept nativism has had few supporters. However, it has proven difficult to say exactly what's wrong with Fodor's argument. We show that previous responses are inadequate on a number of grounds. Chief among these is that they typically do not achieve sufficient distance from Fodor's dialectic, and, as a result, they do not illuminate the central question of how new primitive concepts are acquired. To achieve a fully satisfactory response to Fodor's argument, one has to juxtapose questions about conceptual content with questions about cognitive development. To this end, we formulate a general schema for thinking about how concepts are acquired and then present a detailed illustration.     

Response to commentary on the multimodal treatment study of ADHD (MTA): mining the meaning of the MTA

In the December 2000 issue of the Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, we published a set of papers presenting secondary analyses of the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD (MTA), and R. A. Barkley (2000) provided a commentary. A critique of the design of the study (MTA Cooperative Group, 1999) was presented based on a theoretical perspective of a behavioral inhibition deficit that has been hypothesized as the core deficit of ADHD (R. A. Barkley, 1997). The commentary questioned the design and analysis of the MTA in terms of (1) the empirical criteria for selection of components of behavioral (Beh) intervention, (2) the effectiveness of the Beh intervention, (3) the methods for analyses at the group and individual level, (4) implications of the MTA findings for clinical practice, (5) the role of genetics in response to treatment, and (6) the lack of a nontreatment control group. In this response, we relate the content of the papers to the commentary, (1) by reviewing the selection criteria for the Beh treatment, as outlined by K. C. Wells, W. E. Pelham, et al. (2000), (2) by addressing the myth that the MTA Beh treatment was ineffective (Pelham, 1999), (3) by describing the use of analyses at the level of the individual participant, as presented by J. S. March et al. (2000) and W. E. Pelham et al. (2000) as well as elsewhere by J. M. Swanson et al. (2001) and C. K. Conners et al. (2001), (4) by relating some of the suggestions from the secondary analyses about clinically relevant factors such as comorbidity (as presented by J. S. March et al., 2000) and family and parental characteristics (as presented by B. Hoza et al., 2000, S. P. Hinshaw et al., 2000, and K. C. Wells, J. N. Epstein, et al., 2000), (5) by discussing the statistical concept of heritability and the lack of a significant difference in the presence of ADHD symptoms in parents of the MTA families compared to parents in the classmate-control families (as presented by J. N. Epstein, et al., 2000), and (6) by acknowledging that an ethically necessary weakness of the MTA design is that it did not include a no-treatment control group. We discuss the use of secondary analyses to suggest how, when, and for what subgroups effectiveness of the Beh treatment may have been manifested. Finally, we invite others to use the large and rich data set that will soon be available in the public domain, to perform secondary analyses to mine the meaning of the MTA and to evaluate theories of ADHD and response to treatments.     

No within-object advantage for detection of rotation

It is known that in a detection task the type of rigid transformation to be detected (reflection vs. translation) interacts with the type of display (closed vs. open contours). The advantage for closed contours found with reflection is believed to be a general within-object advantage, whilst the advantage for open contours found with translation is an exception, described as a lock-and-key process (Acta Psychol. 95 (1997) 119). We tested rotation, using a reaction time paradigm, and found the same result as for translation. Moreover, we found that the critical factor is not the number of objects present, rather it is whether the comparison is made across a surface or across an aperture between surfaces. Post-experiment interviews did not confirm any difference for observers who reported using a conscious lock-and-key mental transformation. We speculate that seeing a translation or a rotation across a closed figure is difficult because the closure of the figure emphasises the mismatch of the contour polarities on the two sides of the figure. That is, there may be a closed object advantage for detecting a difference in polarity which interferes with the task of detecting a regularity in shape. Evidence from the analysis of foil rejection trials supports such a speculation.     

Cognitive and affective development in adolescence

Questions about the nature of normative and atypical development in adolescence have taken on special significance in the last few years, as scientists have begun to recast old portraits of adolescent behavior in the light of new knowledge about brain development. Adolescence is often a period of especially heightened vulnerability as a consequence of potential disjunctions between developing brain, behavioral and cognitive systems that mature along different timetables and under the control of both common and independent biological processes. Taken together, these developments reinforce the emerging understanding of adolescence as a critical or sensitive period for a reorganization of regulatory systems, a reorganization that is fraught with both risks and opportunities.     

A measure for the assessment of eating disorders: reliability and validity studies of the Rating of Anorexia and Bulimia interview - revised version (RAB-R)

The Rating of Anorexia and Bulimia interview (RAB) is a Swedish semi-structured interview for clinical and research purposes for a wide range of eating disorder symptoms and related psychopathology. The objectives were to evaluate the reliability and validity of a revised RAB version (RAB-R). The RAB-R was assessed in terms of internal consistency, inter-rater and test-retest reliability, and criterion and convergent validity. Samples included a clinical sample of eating disorder patients (n = 71) and a sample of randomly drawn female controls (n = 31). The RAB-R showed satisfactory internal consistency, inter-rater and test-retest reliability, correlated well with related measures, and discriminated between patients and normal controls. We conclude that the RAB-R is a promising interview instrument and continued evaluation should focus on comparing subgroups of eating disorder patients with other clinical groups.     

Gender-role conflict scale: College men's fear of femininity

Gender-role conflict exists when gender roles have negative consequences for people. This research reports initial validity and reliability data on measures of gender-role conflict for men. Two measures, Gender Role Conflict Scale I and II (GRCS-I and GRCS-II) were constructed to assess patterns of gender-role conflict described in the literature. GRCS-I assesses men's personal gender-role attitudes, behaviors, and conflicts. GRCS-II assesses men's gender-role conflicts in specific gender-role conflict situations. Both GRCS measures and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) were administered to male college students (N=527). Initial factor-analytic data for GRCS-I and GRCS-II demonstrated eight meaningful factors. Acceptable test-retest and internal consistency reliabilities were found for both measures. MANOVA, ANOVA, and Tukey procedures indicated differences for subjects across the four PAQ categories. Significant gender-role conflict differences across the factors were found for men who were instrumental, expressive, or both instrumental and expressive. Results of these differences are reported, as well as implications for future development of both scales.The authors are indebted to Dr. Nancy Betz (Ohio State University) who generously gathered data for us during the Spring Semester, 1982. This research was supported by a grant from the General Research Fund of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. This paper was presented at the American Psychological Association Annual Convention, Washington, DC, August 26, 1982.