Working with movement as a metaphor: Understanding the therapeutic impact of physical exercise from a gestalt perspective

Although the therapeutic impact of exercise on depression has been well documented, studies usually evaluate long-term fitness programmes and relate improved psychological well-being to changes in metabolism and physique. That exercise may stimulate affective and cognitive awareness and exploration is rarely acknowledged. This case study explores the contribution that client-chosen physical activity made to the counselling process. From a gestalt perspective, the experience of physical exercise seemed to heighten the client's present awareness, promoted the recognition and integration of conflicting facets of the self and provided a deep metaphor, both expressing and satisfying the client's needs for movement and activity (rather than passivity). The case example is unusual in illustrating how physical sporting exercise may be used as a vehicle for affective and cognitive expression.     

Prototypical similarity,self-categorization,and depersonalized attraction: A perspective on group cohesiveness

In contrast to traditional approaches that widely equate group cohesiveness with interpersonal attraction, self-categorization theoryargues that self-categorization depersonalizes perception in terms of the group prototype, and transforms the basis of interindividual attitude (liking) from idiosyncracy into prototypicality. An implication is that while attraction in interpersonal relationships relates to overall similarity, attraction among group members is based on prototypical similarity. To test this idea, subjects (N = 219) participated in an experiment in which they reported their attitude towards an individual who would be their partner, or a fellow group member (of either group ‘Visual’ or group ‘Tactile’) for a subsequent task. Subject-target similarity varied on each of two dimensions: dimension ‘A’ was more prototypical of group ‘Visual’, and dimension ‘F’ of group ‘Tactile’. The independent variables of social orientation (interpersonal, group ‘Visual’, group ‘Tactile’), similarity on dimension A (A ±), and dimension F(F±) were manipulated in a 3 × 2 × 2 design. The three hypotheses tested in this experiment were generally supported. Subjects preferred prototypically similar group members to interpersonal partners, and downgraded prototypically dissisimilar group members (HI). Identification was positively related to target evaluation (H2), more strongly for prototypically similar than dissimilar targets (H3), and the identification-attraction relationship was mediated by perceived prototypical similarity. Group-based effects were independent of perceptions of overall similarity.     

Optimism and Revolt of the Oppressed: A Comparison of Two Polish Jewish Ghettos of World War II

One World War II Jewish ghetto that revolted, the Warsaw Ghetto, is compared to one that did not, the Lodz Ghetto, in order to examine the causes of violent resistance. This structured focused comparative method (George, 1979) illuminates problems with previous explanations for revolt and nonrevolt in Jewish ghettos and suggest psychological variables that might have led to or precluded organized violence. Specifically, it appears that these two ghettos differed in their perceptions about their future. The residents of the Warsaw Ghetto believed they had no hope of survival while residents of the Lodz Ghetto remained optimistic. These differing perceptions seem to have led to the different outcomes. Possible causes of these percetpions are also discussed.     

Sex and attitude distortion: Ability of females and males to fake liberal and conservative positions regarding changing sex roles

Scales designed to measure attitudes toward changing sex roles are vulnerable to the effects of social desirability. The purpose of this study was to assess the differences in this vulnerability or fakeability between an older scale, the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) and a more current scale, the Bias in Attitudes Survey (BIAS). Results suggest that, when asked to do so, females are able to present themselves as liberal or conservative on either scale. Males can manipulate the concepts of the AWS as directed, but are less able to do so with the concepts on the BIAS. Implications for the measurement of sex-role attitudes are discussed.     

Speaking without seeing,or the effect of interviewer absence on interviewee disclosure time

The results of the present study confirmed earlier findings that the elimination of the usual face-to-face confrontation between interviewer and interviewee enhances disclosure time in relation to intimate questions. By unconfounding speaking time and pausing time, the present research demonstrated that the facilitating effect of an interviewer's absence is not simply an artifact of increased latencies and silent pauses within responses. The earlier findings were extended by manipulating the intimacy level of questions asked of subjects in the context of a gender-balanced design.     

Effects of mutual invisibility and topical intimacy on verbal fluency in dyadic communication

The mutual reduction of visual feedback, which in this study did not interfere with the synchronization of turns, reduced the productivity levels and increased the silent pauses of female speakers, even though it had no effect on their subjective discomfort, anxiety, and ease of communication self-ratings. The same reduction of visual feedback, which was achieved by seating the participants back-to-back rather than face-to-face, caused male speakers to feel anxious and uncomfortable and reduced the duration of their silent pauses, but only in samegender dyads. These findings are explained in terms of previously noted gender differences in the need for visual feedback and in the anxiety-arousing effects of back-to-back interactions. Intimate communications, on the part of both male and female speakers, were associated with a slow pacing of speech but not with a decrease in productivity level, independently of the seating arrangement. These findings are interpreted in terms of the self-monitoring and self-censoring that is usually associated with the communication of intimate messages.     

Recent research trends in testing

Summary: Recent trends in test research as measured by references in Buros' Mental Measurements Yearbooks were investigated. The 24 tests with the greatest number of publications were identified, and growth trends of five major tests (Rorschach, MMPI, TAT, Stanford-Bhet, and SVIB) were shown. The correlation between test publications and test usage was .25. The authors speculated that future research trends might include increasing psychometric attention to behavioral assessment and test modifications for minorities. Based on a survey of psychologists' judgments of test quality, the authors concluded that good psychometric properties do not test leaders make.     

Assessment of adolescents' learned helplessness in achievement situations

Three studies are reported that describe the development, reliability, and initial validation of the Mastery Orientation Inventory (MOI; Reynolds & Miller, in press) as a measure of generalized learned helplessness in adolescents. In Study 1, an initial version of 50 items was administered to a sample of 112 adolescents. A revised 40-item scale with an internal consistency reliability of .94 was then constructed, which correlated significantly with measures of locus of control and depression. Study 2 involved the administration of the 40-item MOI to 645 adolescents. In this study, the reliability of the MOI was .92, and MOI scores were significantly correlated with subjects' depression scores and with self-reported grade point average. Factor analysis of the MOI items produced a strong first factor with high loadings for every item. In Study 3, the 112 subjects who participated in Study 1 were, 3 months later, readministered the MOI, locus of control, and depression measures. As an external criterion variable, 13 teachers provided global ratings of learned helpless/mastery-oriented behaviors for 99 of these subjects. The MOI demonstrated high internal consistency (r alpha = .95) and adequate test-retest (rtt = .77) reliability. Validity was supported by significant correlations between the MOI and the three criterion variables (/rs/ = .49-.58). The results of these investigations provide initial support for the reliability and validity of the MOI as a measure of learned helplessness.     

Recall or evaluation of chess positions as determinants of chess skill

Previous research has found that the ability to recall briefly presented chess positions varies with playing strength, except when random positions are used. The suggestion therefore arises that mastery consists of recognizing configurations that are associated with plausible moves. This approach is tested by comparing the memory scores and move-choice protocols of players in six skill categories, using random chess positions. Contrary to any strong form of recognition-association hypothesis, differences in chess skill are shown to persist although memory differences are abolished. It is further shown that the moves selected are not based on those few pieces that are remembered. Skill-related differences in the accuracy of positional evaluations also occur, but they are less marked than in earlier results. An alternative approach to chess skill seems appropriate, in which memory effects may function at the evaluation phase.