马克思主义哲学中的物质范畴

人类生活在宇宙之中,这个宇宙不能自发地为人类提供认识它的因素。宇宙是如何产生的又向何处发展人在宇宙中的作用是什么哲学研究的目的,就在于试图为如此众多的疑问寻找答案。肯定任何一种答案,都需要经过验证。唯心主义和唯物主义关于上述问题的答案不但是对立的,而且这种对立仍在不断加深。     

黑格尔论革命权利

新发现的两种讲课笔记证明:黑格尔作为社会哲学家在海德堡和柏林一直都是进步的在1819—1820年冬季学期黑格尔甚至谈论穷人的非常权利。     

计算机和形而上学

什么是形而上学我要使用的方法是起源于古代而今天仍为人们所使用的方法,也就是给出一些实例,再从中抽象得出一般的原理。让我们以罗马诗人卢克莱修的形而上学为例,他借用了古希腊原子论者的观点。卢克莱修认为,基本的实体是由原子和虚空或空间所组成的。原子是坚硬的,小到我们看不见它,它们在空无的空间中运动并且保持不变。     

苏格拉底的反证法简论

我这里所讲的苏格拉底,是柏拉图早期对话中的苏格拉底。依我看来,柏拉图在对话中重建了这个历史人物的哲学方法和哲学学说。这里,我将着重谈谈我认为是苏格拉底从事哲学研究的主要方法,我把它称之为“标准反证法”。这个名称有别于R.鲁滨逊等人的“间接反证法”。他们之所以称它为“间接反证法”,是因为在反证时,驳斥的论点可能被用作对此论点进行反驳的前提。在这里,苏格拉底不受所提出之前提真理性的束缚,而由它推出     

论概念

1.知识分为(a)普遍承认的概念(太阳、月亮、智慧、灵魂)和(b)有待证明的概念(例如确证宇宙是由包含在另一球体中的球面组成的;或者是在时间中被创造的)。每个概念都必定有一个更普遍的概念在它之前存在着。但是,那个概念的最终建立却无需和在它之先的概念相关联。必然的存在和可能的存在就是这样的概念。这样的概念无需人们去构想一个包含着它们的东西,它们本身就是清楚、明白的自明概     

罗蒂的实用主义

许多人主张,R.罗蒂是在传统哲学的范围中进行论证的,尽管他的论点恰恰相反。本文的目的,就是针对这些人的看法提出一个建议:应把罗蒂看作是处于哲学传统之外的重要思想家,一个处于哲学传统之外的批判者。我的建议所围绕的中心,是略述罗蒂的实用主义如何不同于人们较为熟知的那些实用主义。一般承认,实用主义是一种重要的哲学观点,一种经常被援引的观点。但难得有人对这一观点作出清楚的说明。这是由于,当人们援引实用主义时,往往把它与包含有真理符合论的主张和观点加以对比,因而只是对它作了颇为有限的论述。最近罗蒂以几种方式援引了实用主义。通过这些方式,他驳斥了真理符合论,甚至一般地驳斥了需要有任何真理理论,他诉诸实用主义,运用成效     

唯心主义和宗教的相似与区别

在阶级社会里,宗教和哲学唯心主义之间的相似和密切联系,是毋庸置疑的。无论是宗教还是哲学唯心主义,都是对世界的一种不正确的看法,都是一种错误的、歪曲的、颠倒的世界观。宗教和哲学唯心主义都反映这些和那些阶级的利益,它们过去和现在多半是阶级社会里的思想斗争中的同盟军。以上这些观点都是下述看法的依据,即在我们的文献里,充分而又广泛地提到宗教和哲学唯心主义是一些不同的现象,但就其本质来说,又是同一     

马克思的历史唯物主义

一、导言我认为历史唯物主义就是马克思在其著名的《<政治经济学批判>序言》(以下简称《序言》——译者)中所阐述的、在《资本论》和马克思以及马克思主义者其他许多著作中举出作为例证的那种观点。我将用几句导言开始我的论述,然后概略地介绍一下这个理论,最后我要力辩,尽管这个观点确实具有许多吸引人的地方,但它过分限制了对历史进行合理探讨的范围,以致最后成为不可接受的了。     

Transfer of matching-to-figure samples in the pigeon

Three pigeons were trained on a modified six-key matching-to-sample procedure. The third peck on the figure-sample key (which presented a bird, hand, face, beetle, rabbit, fish, flower, or red hue, as the sample) lighted only one comparison key. Every three additional pecks on the sample lighted another comparison key, up to a maximum of five keys. Pecks on keys of matching figures produced grain. Pecks on nonmatching keys (mismatches) turned off all lights on the comparison keys and repeated the trial. Three figures were used during acquisition. The birds learned to peck each sample until the matching comparison stimulus appeared on one of three comparison stimulus keys, and then to peck that key. Later, five novel stimuli, employed as both sample and comparison stimuli, and two additional matching keys were added. Each bird showed matching transfer to the novel samples. The data suggest that the birds may have learned the concept of figure matching rather than a series of two-component chains or discrete five-key discriminations.     

Temporal control by signals of interval duration within variable-interval schedules

Rats' lever pressing produced sucrose reinforcers on a variable-interval schedule where, in different conditions, the duration of a stimulus presented immediately after reinforcement was either correlated or uncorrelated with the duration of the current interreinforcement interval. Under the baseline schedule, in which no stimulus was presented, the minimum interreinforcement interval was 8 s and the mean postreinforcement pause of each subject approximated this value. Response rates increased slowly over the first 10 to 15 s and then remained roughly constant throughout the remainder of the interval. In both the correlated and uncorrelated conditions, the added stimulus resulted in the postreinforcement pauses lengthening to values in excess of the duration of the preceding stimulus. This resulted in a poststimulus pause which was, in most cases, roughly constant irrespective of the duration of the preceding stimulus, or of the reinforcement contingencies prevailing immediately after stimulus offset. Local response-rate patterns in the uncorrelated conditions were similar to those obtained under the baseline schedule in which no stimulus was presented. However, in the correlated condition local response rates increased across the remainder of the interreinforcer interval. Further, the rate of acceleration was inversely related to the duration of the preceding stimulus. These results show that a correlation between stimulus duration and the ensuing time to reinforcement can control behavior—a type of temporal control not previously reported.