GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT GENERALIZATION: HOW A THEORY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT EXPLAINS BOTH GENERALITY AND SPECIFICITY*

Within a skill-theory framework, the traditional opposition between generalization and specificity is resolved. Neither generalization nor specificity is considered the normal state. Instead, they are both phenomena that can be predicted and explained in terms of skill structures and functional mechanisms of development or learning. A person acquires a skill in a specific context and must work to gradually extend it to other contexts. Within a task domain and across related domains, a set of structural transformations predict the order of generalization of the skill. Range of generalization of a given skill at a point in time varies widely across people and situations as a function of specified functional mechanisms. Generalization is maximized when (a) tasks are similar and familiar, (b) the environment provides opportunities for practice and support, (c) the person has had time to consolidate skills at the relevant developmental level, and (d) he or she is intelligent and in an emotional state facilitative of the particular skill. True generalization must be distinguished from optimal-level synchrony, where new capacities emerge across domains as a new developmental level emerges.     

Discriminant validity of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List - revised

Four groups of patients (depressives, schizophrenics, substance dependents and abusers), a miscellaneous group of other patients, and a group of matched normals from a general population sample were compared on the scales of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List - Revised (MAACL-R). All scales showed highly significant differentiation among the groups. An index consisting of Depression minus Positive Affect scales was particularly effective in discriminating between depressive and other groups. A discriminant function analysis showed that the depressive could be distinguished from other patient groups and normals with an accuracy of 72% correct. The normals could be distinguished from all of the patient groups with a 60% accuracy, and 87% if the substance abuser group is ignored. The discriminant validity among the nondepressive patient groups was not nearly as good.     

Sex differences in competition—cooperation behavior of children at two age levels

Competitive or cooperative behaviors of children were observed in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 7- to 9-year-old boys and girls played a board game with same- or opposite-sex partners under instructions which stressed either group or individual performance. Girls' behavior varied as a function of both instructions and partner sex. Girls playing the game with boys showed more highly competitive behavior than did girls who played the game with girls. Boys were highly competitive under all conditions. In Experiment 2, preschool children were observed in a similar game. For both sexes, children who played the game with opposite-sex partners were more competitive and obtained fewer rewards than those who interacted with same-sex partners. Thus, with development, boys show a change from selective competitiveness to a very general tendency to compete, while girls show a consistent tendency to vary their game behavior according to situational cues such as those provided by instructions or the sex of a game partner.A report of the first experiment was made at the Third Biennial Southeastern Conference of the Society for Research in Child Development, Chapel Hill, March 1974. The authors would like to thank the personnel of St. Francis Cabrini School and the Children's House Montessori School of New Orleans, Louisiana, for their cooperation in providing research participants.     

Revisiting the role of the prefrontal cortex in the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Most neural models for the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have centered on the prefrontal cortex and its interconnections with the striatum and other subcortical structures. However, research only partially supports these models, and they do not correspond with the development of the prefrontal cortex and its interrelated neurocircuitry. The neural and functional development of the prefrontal cortex more closely parallels recovery from ADHD as indicated by the developmental remission of symptomatology. The authors hypothesize that ADHD is due to noncortical dysfunction that manifests early in ontogeny, remains static throughout the lifetime, and is not associated with the remission of symptomatology. Data supporting this neurodevelopmental model of prefrontal cortex function in ADHD are reviewed. Research and treatment implications are discussed.     

Separating multiple processes in implicit social cognition: the quad model of implicit task performance

The authors argue that implicit measures of social cognition do not reflect only automatic processes but rather the joint contributions of multiple, qualitatively different processes. The quadruple process model proposed and tested in the present article quantitatively disentangles the influences of 4 distinct processes on implicit task performance: the likelihood that automatic bias is activated by a stimulus; that a correct response can be determined; that automatic bias is overcome; and that, in the absence of other information, a guessing bias drives responses. The stochastic and construct validity of the model is confirmed in 5 studies. The model is shown to provide a more nuanced and detailed understanding of the interplay of multiple processes in implicit task performance, including implicit measures of attitudes, prejudice, and stereotyping.     

Social categorization and the perception of facial affect: target race moderates the response latency advantage for happy faces

Two experiments competitively test 3 potential mechanisms (negativity inhibiting responses, feature-based accounts, and evaluative context) for the response latency advantage for recognizing happy expressions by investigating how the race of a target can moderate the strength of the effect. Both experiments indicate that target race modulates the happy face advantage, such that European American participants displayed the happy face advantage for White target faces, but displayed a response latency advantage for angry (Experiments 1 and 2) and sad (Experiment 2) Black target faces. This pattern of findings is consistent with an evaluative context mechanism and inconsistent with negativity inhibition and feature-based accounts of the happy face advantage. Thus, the race of a target face provides an evaluative context in which facial expressions are categorized.     

SELF-IMAGE,INFORMATION EXCHANGE AND SOCIAL CHARACTER1

On interroge des individus sur l'image qu'ils se font d'eux-mêmes, l'image qu'ils désireraient donner d'eux-mêmes dans deux situations sociales distinctes (réunion amicale — entretien professionnel) et les traits d'autrui sur lesquels ils chercheraient, dans ces mêmes situations, à s'informer. Les AA. ont choisi des sujets qui sont représentatifs des types psycho-sociologiques de Riesman : étudiants de l'Inde méridionale (orientation traditionnelle); étudiants américains d'un collège exclusivement noir (orientation vers soi); étudiants américains d'un collège exclusivement blanc (orientation vers autrui). Pour se décrire eux-mêmes, les sujets indiens ont mis l'accent sur les origines démographiques, les noirs américains sur les traits de personnalité et les américains blancs sur les attitudes et opinions, ce qui est conforme aux hypothèses tirées du caractère dominant qu'ils représentent. On constate également que les Indiens changent de critères selon le type de situation évoquée, tandis que les Américains blancs changent très peu, les noirs américains se situant entre les deux.     

Zur Logik der Sollsaetze

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Examining Sex Differences in Altering Attitudes About Rape: A Test of the Elaboration Likelihood Model

This intervention sought to improve first-year college students' attitudes about rape. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) was used to examine men and women's attitude change processes. Both quantitative and qualitative methodologies were used to examine how men and women construed rape prevention messages. Results indicated numerous sex differences in the ways in which men and women experienced and changed during and after the rape prevention intervention. Women seemed to use more central-route attitude change processes and showed more lasting change from the intervention at 2-month follow-up, whereas men seemed to attend more to peripheral cues of the speaker and demonstrated more transient attitude change.