Lending a Helping Hand: The Effects of Gender Stereotypes and Gender on Likelihood of Helping1

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of gender and gender-role stereotypes on judgments of help-giving. As part of a 2 × 2 within-subjects design, 40 undergraduates read 4 different scenarios that described either a man or a woman needing help in either a stereotypically masculine or a stereotypically feminine situation. Although male participants felt more sympathy for men in stereotypically feminine situations and for women in stereotypically masculine situations, they were no more likely to help these individuals than they were to help those in gender-consistent situations. By contrast, women were more likely to help people in gender-inconsistent situations, despite feeling the most sympathy for people needing help in masculine situations. Implications for Weiner's (1980) attribution model of help-giving and Nadler & Fisher's (1986) threat-to-self-esteem model are discussed.     

CONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT OF ABSTINENCE WITH INDIVIDUALS ABUSING COCAINE AND MARIJUANA

Two males diagnosed with cocaine dependence received a behavioral intervention comprised of contingency management and the community reinforcement approach. During the initial phase of treatment, reinforcement was delivered contingent on submitting cocaine-free urine specimens. The community reinforcement approach involved two behavior therapy sessions each week. Almost complete cocaine abstinence was achieved, but regular marijuana use continued. During a second phase, reinforcement magnitude was reduced, but remained contingent on submitting cocaine-free specimens. Behavior therapy was reduced to once per week. Cocaine abstinence and regular marijuana use continued. Next, reinforcement was delivered contingent on submitting cocaine- and marijuana-free specimens. This modified contingency resulted in an abrupt increase in marijuana abstinence and maintenance of cocaine abstinence. One- and 5-month follow-ups indicated that cocaine abstinence continued, but marijuana smoking resumed. These results indicate that the behavioral intervention was efficacious in achieving abstinence from cocaine and marijuana; maintenance, however, was achieved for cocaine only.     

Developmental epidemiologically based preventive trials: Baseline modeling of early target behaviors and depressive symptoms

Describes a conceptual framework for identifying and targeting developmental antecedents in early childhood that have been shown in previous work to predict delinquency and violent behavior, heavy drug use, depression, and other psychiatric symptoms and possibly disorders in late adolescence and into adulthood. Criteria are described that guided choices of targets for two epidemiologically based, randomized preventive trials carried out in 19 elementary schools in the eastern half of Baltimore, involving more than 2,400 first-grade children over the course of first and second grades. Baseline models derived from the first of two cohorts show the evolving patterns of concurrence among the target antecedents. The central role of concentration problems emerged. From Fall to Spring in first grade, concentration problems led to shy and aggressive behavior and poor achievement in both genders and to depressive symptoms among girls. There was evidence for reciprocal relationships in girls. For example, depressive symptoms led to poor achievement in both girls and boys, whereas poor achievement led to depressive symptoms in girls but not boys, at least over the first-grade year. These results provide important epidemiological data relevant to the developmental paths leading to the problem outcomes and suggest preventive trials.     

ENTRY LEVEL HIRING STANDARDS IN RURAL CENTRAL MINNESOTA

In order to determine the hiring standards for entry level jobs used by employers in rural central Minnesota, a rating scale was developed. On the rating scale, 15 characteristics that seemed important for hiring purposes were included. The rating scale was mailed to 20 employers hiring over 30 employees. All 20 employers returned the rating scales. The results indicate that 100 percent of the employers consider attitude as very important or most important for hiring purposes. Ability (aptitude) was considered very important by 90 percent of the employers. Interests, appearance, and references were considered to be of average or more importance by 90 percent of the employers for hiring purposes. The results should assist entry level job seekers in making more effective applications for work.     

Associative responding versus analogical reasoning by children

Following upon work which showed that college and high school students' analogy solutions were predictable from ratings of the relatedness of the words comprising the analogy choices, this study extended those results to children's analogy solutions. Achenbach's Children's Associative Responding Test was used as the criterion to determine (1) whether analogy solutions by children were as related to word relatedness ratings as analogy solutions were in previous subject samples, (2) whether individual differences in using associative responding versus analogical reasoning processes could enhance the predictability estimates, and (3) whether associative priming can affect analogy solutions. Two correlational studies were done, one on an American and another on a Nigerian sample. A third study was an experimental manipulation of choices on analogy items on an American sample. The results suggest that the answer to questions (1) and (3) is yes, but the answer to question (2) is no.     

Positive effect of heterogeneity of difference on thesame-different disparity in letter matching

Subjects judged whether two adjacent letters were identical or different.Different pairs were similar, for example HM, DO, VY, or dissimilar, for example DY, HV,MO. According to the noisy-operator theory, increasing the heterogeneity of difference (external noise) by intermixing similar and dissimilardifferent pairs ought to produce faster but less accurate responses ondifferent trials. As predicted, the tendency to make more false-different responses (i.e., errors on same pairs) decreased when the similar and dissimilardifferent pairs were intermixed rather than presented in separate blocks. The fast-same effect did not change, however, seemingly due to criterion misadjustment. Proctor and Rao apparently found no effect of heterogeneity of difference on RT and errors because they used a less sensitive procedure (between-subjects design; different set of letters for more and less heterogeneous conditions). Consistent with the internal-noise principle, but not with the response-competition model of Eriksen, O’Hara, and Eriksen, the enhanced fast-same effect on blocks containing only similar (vs. dissimilar)different pairs was accompanied by an increased preponderance of false-different errors.     

Letter detection with rapid serial visual presentation: evidence against word superiority at feature extraction

Letter detection typically is faster and more accurate in words than nonwords. Experiments 1, 2, and 3 tested the robustness of the word superiority effect using rapid serial visual presentation of words or nonwords. Letter detection was better in words even when the six-letter items were presented one after the other at rapid rates, up to about 10 items per second. At yet faster rates, however, the word advantage vanished. Experiments 4 and 5 tested whether word context aids feature extraction or the subsequent interpretation stage. In Experiment 4, subjects had to discriminate whether a mutilated A or mutilated E was present; in Experiment 5, subjects had merely to decide whether a mutilated A was present. Mutilation discrimination in Experiment 4 was better on words than nonwords; once a mutilation was detected, the word context revealed whether it was an A or an E. Mutilation detection in Experiment 5 did not differ between words and nonwords, though on words there was a response bias toward not reporting a mutilation as present. The results indicate that familiarity aids the interpretation process alone: Letters are not seen any more clearly or rapidly in words, but are simply filled in or inferred more accurately from the familiar context.     

Three studies on configural face processing by chimpanzees

Previous studies have demonstrated the sensitivity of chimpanzees to facial configurations. Three studies further these findings by showing this sensitivity to be specific to second-order relational properties. In humans, this type of configural processing requires prolonged experience and enables subordinate-level discriminations of many individuals. Chimpanzees showed evidence of a composite-like effect for conspecific but not human faces despite extensive experience with humans. Chimpanzee face recognition was impaired only when manipulations targeted second-order properties. Finally, face processing was impaired when individual features were blurred through pixelation. Results confirm that chimpanzee face discrimination, like humans, depends on the integrity of second-order relational properties.