Against a role for attentional disengagement in the gap effect: A friendly amendment to Tam and Stelmach (1993)

Saccadic reaction time (RT) is reduced when the fixation point is removed shortly before target onset. Although Tam and Stelmach (1993) argued that thisgap effect could not be explained solely by the idea that fixation offset disengaged visual attention and preferred an explanation based on disengagement of the oculomotor system, they felt that they could not rule out a hybrid model in which both oculomotorand attentional disengagement contribute to the gap effect. Our analysis of the dual response experiment (Experiment 4), upon which this hybrid model was based, shows that manual and saccadic responses were likely compromised by a grouping or delay strategy and that subjects may not have been attending as instructed. On these grounds, we argue that Tam and Stelmach (1993), like Kingstone and Klein (1990; 1993a) provide no evidence that attentional disengagement contributes to the gap effect. An alternative proposal (Klein & Kingstone, 1993), that motor preparation and oculomotor disengagement combine additively to produce the gap effect, is consistent with the data from Tam and Stelmach’s Experiments 1–3, is similar to the explanation that they prefer, and has been strongly supported when directly tested (Kingstone, Klein, & Taylor, 1994).     

The evidence for a temporal processing deficit linked to dyslexia: A review

The existence of a phonemic deficit that is predictive of, and probably causal to, many cases of reading difficulty is well established. Tallal (1984) has suggested that this phonemic deficit is in fact a symptom of an underlying auditory temporal processing deficit. Our purpose in this paper is to evaluate the plausibility of this hypothesis. The various components that might constitute sequential (or temporal) processing are described. Our review of the literature reveals considerable evidence for a deficit in dyslexics in stimulus individuation tasks (e.g., gap detection) and temporal order judgments in both the auditory and visual modalities. The possibility that a general temporal processing deficit is associated with dyslexia, as suggested by Tallal (1984), is explored, and possible etiologies for such a deficit are discussed. The possibility of a causal link between temporal processing deficits and some reading disabilities is demonstrated, and converging evidence from morphological studies is reviewed. It is concluded that a temporal processing deficit does appear to be present in many developmental dyslexics, and strategies are suggested for further research aimed at evaluating the hypothesis that this deficit may be the root cause of a number of cases of dyslexia itself.     

On the causes and effects of inhibition of return

Unpredictive visual transient cues have a biphasic effect on reaction times (RTs) to peripheral onset targets. At relatively short (e.g., 150-msec) cue-target stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs), RTs to targets at cued versus uncued locations are facilitated, whereas at relatively long SOAs (e.g., beyond 300 msec), they are inhibited. The present review explores the conditions under which this latter, inhibitory, effect-referred to as inhibition of return (IOR; Posner & Cohen, 1984)—is revealed and those conditions under which it is generated. We argue that the extant literature converges on the view that IOR reflects a motor response bias that is generated by the activation of an oculomotor program to fixate the cue. However, we reveal that current conceptualizations of IOR are based on a limited sampling of possible tests of the generation and measurement of IOR and indicate where further experimental research is critical.     

An Excel macro for transformed and weighted averaging

An Excel macro is presented for averaging spreadsheet data. The macro has several special features: (1) The data are weighted by the inverse variance of each datum to decrease the contribution-of noisy outliers. (2) There is a provision for a power or a log transform of the data before averaging. The rationale for transforming the data before averaging is discussed (3) The output includes the average value, its standard error, and the reduced chi-square that measures the goodness of fit (4) The standard error is corrected by a heterogeneity factor based on the reduced chi-square The averaging of data is rarely done properly, and the intent of this article is to clarify the issues and provide a tool that allows researchers to improve their averaging techniques.     

Large groups in treatment and training settings

A review of published work over the past decade and a half supports the effectiveness of the large group in clinical settings. Greater sophistication among practitioners has led to combining administrative, psychotherapeutic, and sociotherapeutic large groups and to the use of effective treatment teams and clearly defined contracts in inpatient hospital work. Some research findings suggest that large treatment groups are as effective as small therapy groups with some patient populations. There appears to be a movement toward convergence in the techniques employed by individual, small group, and large group therapists in practice, while not in theory. This positive trend in the mental health field may lead to more flexible practitioners.He is also on the board of the A. K. Rice Institute and a faculty member of the Cincinnati Psychoanalytic Institute. He would like to thank Walter Stone and Peter Herr for their comments and Lorna Volk for editing.     

The Axis II group: treating severely characterologically disturbed patients

Treating the chronically mentally ill involves not only working with patients suffering from schizophrenia and other prolonged or recurrent psychotic illnesses, it also means providing treatment for patients with severe personality disorders. Many of these patients are also active substance abusers. This article examines the therapeutic and management issues raised for outpatient clinicians who work with these patients. Consideration is devoted to the special problems in treating the dual diagnosis patient, issues of patient and therapist safety, limit setting, splitting dynamics, and countertransference reactions. A set of recommendations is offered for conducting outpatient group therapy, specifying what is needed from both the clinicians and the facility in which this type of treatment is provided.     

Control theory and understanding motivated behavior: A different conclusion

In the preceding article it was argued that control theory is not a useful paradigm for understanding work motivation. In doing so, three primary criticisms were presented: (a) that control theory, as originally formulated, does not adequately describe human behavior, (b) that modifications of control theory to describe human behavior have not been successful, and (c) that the use of logical deductions to develop a control theory model of work motivation is less efficacious than a grounded theory approach. In this reply, it will be shown that (a) the first criticism is not incorrect but is an inappropriate basis for criticism, (b) statements regarding modified control theory models are either inaccurate or premature, and (c) both inductive and deductive reasoning play an important role in theory development. In addressing these issues and in discussing the distinct advantages of current control theory models it will be shown that control theory does provide a viable paradigm for understanding work motivation.Thanks to John R. Hollenbeck for his helpful comments on this paper.     

The effects of eccentric head positions on leftward and rightward turns of a handle-bar

We explored the structural constraints on concurrent movements and/or positions of the head and a steering device by means of a reaction-time task. In the first experiment, subjects had to respond rapidly to an imperative stimulus by way of rotating a handle-bar to the left or to the right and back to the central position while they maintained a left or right eccentric position of the head. Latency of the handle-bar responses did not depend on whether their initial directions were toward the eccentric head position or in the opposite direction, but kinematic characteristics did: iso-directional movements were of larger amplitude and longer duration until peak excursion. In the second experiment, the imperative stimuli for handle-bar rotations were presented at variable intervals after the head had been moved from the central to one of the eccentric positions and before its predictable return movement. Kinematic characteristics of the handle-bar rotations depended on the left and right eccentric head positions in the same way as in Experiment 1, but now iso-directional movements had a longer reaction time than movements in the direction of the forthcoming return movement of the head. These findings suggest that specifications of head-movement directions facilitate concurrent specifications of handle-bar rotations in the same direction and inhibit specifications of handle-bar rotations in the opposite direction, consistent with the notion of cross-talk during motor programming.     

Harmful dysfunction, disorder, disease, illness, and evolution.

Can psychiatric disorders be conceptualized as "harmful dysfunctions" (J. C. Wakefield, 1992a, 1992b, 1999; S. O. Lilienfeld & L. Marino, 1995)? Wakefield's (1992a) central concept of disorder as "harmful dysfunction" is discussed by placing it in the context of a complementary discussion of disease, illness, the sick role, and evolution (D. F. Klein, 1978). S. O. Lilienfeld and L. Marino (1995) contended that proper biological function cannot be determined. This argument obscures the key significance of involuntary impairment of evolved functions. The claim that the Roschian concept has no counterpart in reality is incorrect and does not support the conclusion that dysfunctions are irreducibly evaluative and therefore arbitrary. J. C. Wakefield's (1999) views in this area are supplemented. The role of monothetic and polythetic categorization, extremal terms, and the concept of normality in nosology is considered. This analysis refutes the implication that deviance and illness are equivalent. The resolution of this debate is practically relevant to emphasizing areas of research investment, such as therapeutics.