Modification of preschool children's bathroom behaviors by contigent teacher attention

In response to teacher requests for assistance in dealing with bathroom behavior problems, repeated measures of the frequency of paper towel litter, unflushed toilets, dirty sinks, and running water faucets were used to evaluate the effectiveness of contingent teacher praise for appropriate bathroom use by preschool children. Contingent praise for appropriate bathroom behaviors resulted in markedly decreased frequencies of the four target behaviors. Findings suggest that teacher monitoring and contingent social reinforcement can be used to maintain a clean environment in school toilet facilities. The importance of employing natural reinforcers in school settings is discussed.     

Meta-analysis for single-case consultation outcomes: Applications to research and practice

The application of meta-analysis holds much appeal for single-case consultation outcome research. We review a meta-analytic method for using within-study treatment effect sizes in reporting consultation outcomes. The strengths and limitations of traditional group design meta-analysis are examined. Various methods for analyzing single-case outcomes are discussed briefly, followed by an examination of the use of meta-analysis in single-case reviews across independent studies. Within-study meta-analytic results are presented that were derived from treatments implemented in consultations in natural settings. To conclude the article, an illustration is offered of a single-case data analysis display that incorporates meta-analytic results along with other indices of treatment outcome. Recommendations are provided for using meta-analytic methods to evaluate outcomes of single-case consultation treatment.     

Training in Evidence-Based Interventions (EBIs): What are school psychology programs teaching?

This study examined the degree to which school psychology programs provided training in Evidence-Based Interventions (EBIs). Survey data were collected from 97 school psychology training directors to assess their familiarity, level of student exposure, and perceived importance of EBIs. This study also examined the contextual factors that interfere with EBI training, and whether students are taught to apply the criteria developed by Divisions 12, 16, and 53 of the APA when evaluating outcome research. Results indicated that relatively low percentages of respondents were familiar with the EBIs included on the survey, exposure to EBIs occurred more frequently in coursework than practical experiences, and EBIs were rated as either somewhat important or important. Lack of time was rated as the most serious challenge to EBI training and a high percentage of directors reported students were taught to apply the criteria developed by professional organizations in psychology and education when evaluating outcome research.     

Preparing psychologists for evidence-based school practice: lessons learned and challenges ahead

The evidence-based practice (EBP) movement has the potential to significantly advance the quality of psychological and educational services provided by psychologists working in schools. Training psychologists in EBP has challenged the profession and caused faculty in graduate programs to reevaluate and retool professional training curricula and instructional practices. Four domains of challenges in graduate training are identified: (a) integrating the EBP knowledge base into the curriculum, (b) expanding models of research training, (c) expanding training in prevention science, and (d) expanding training in problem-solving consultation and school contextual issues. For each of these, the author discusses the range and scope of the challenge and possible solutions for advancing graduate training in psychology relevant to school practice.     

Extensions of a versatile randomization test for assessing single-case intervention effects

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the statistical properties of two extensions of the Levin-Wampold (1999) single-case simultaneous start-point model's comparative effectiveness randomization test. The two extensions were (a) adapting the test to situations where there are more than two different intervention conditions and (b) examining the test's performance in classroom-based intervention situations, where the number of time periods (and associated outcome observations) is much smaller than in the contexts for which the test was originally developed. Various Monte Carlo sampling situations were investigated, including from one to five participant blocks per condition and differing numbers of time periods, potential intervention start points, degrees of within-phase autocorrelation, and effect sizes. For all situations, it was found that the Type I error probability of the randomization test was maintained at an acceptable level. With a few notable exceptions, respectable power was observed only in situations where the numbers of observations and potential intervention start points were relatively large, effect sizes were large, and the degree of within-phase autocorrelation was relatively low. It was concluded that the comparative effectiveness randomization test, with its desirable internal validity and statistical-conclusion validity features, is a versatile analytic tool that can be incorporated into a variety of single-case school psychology intervention research situations.