OPERANT CONTROL OF PATHOLOGICAL TONGUE THRUST IN SPASTIC CEREBRAL PALSY

Pathological tongue thrust (reverse swallowing) has been associated with neuromuscular disorders and linked to dental malocclusion, articulation problems, difficulty in eating, and excessive drooling. In this study, observable tongue thrust in a 10-year-old retarded male was modified during mealtime using a procedure consisting of differential reinforcement (presentation of food contingent upon tongue in) and punishment (gently pushing the tongue back into the mouth with a spoon). Results of a reversal design showed substantial decreases in tongue thrust and food expulsion, and a large increase in observed chewing. These data compared favorably with data obtained for other retarded persons not judged to be tongue thrusters; in addition, the objective results of the treatment program were substantiated via pre-post evaluations done by occupational and physical therapists. These findings suggest that operant techniques may be an effective means of treating tongue thrust and its associated problems, and that further development and evaluation of behavioral interventions may provide a desirable alternative to more intrusive surgical or mechanical procedures.     

Response patterning on an avoidance schedule as a function of time-correlated stimuli

Control of avoidance response patterning by time-correlated stimuli was studied in rhesus monkeys. At several shock-shock = response-shock intervals, the intervals were divided into 8, 4, or 2 time segments by correlating, respectively, 1, 2, or 4 discrete lights of an eight-light display with each successive segment. A further condition examined response patterning when the avoidance interval was not segmented: all eight lights of the display were lit throughout the interval. Reversal of the order in which the lights were lit in sequence was also examined. Generally, increasing the number of lights lit at one time (decreasing the number of signalled time segments) increased response rates and shifted interresponse time distributions to the left. When the lights were lit one at a time, signalling eight discrete time segments of the interval, response rates were consistently low.     

Reliability and validity of scores from the Singer-Loomis Type Deployment Inventory

This paper focuses on the Singer-Loomis Type Deployment Inventory (SL-TDI), which is an alternative to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The SL-TDI utilizes a continuous, non-forced choice format and therefore is a more accurate representation of Jung's personality theory of psychological types. The purpose of the study reported here is to evaluate the reliability and validity of scores from the SL-TDI. Specifically, the goals were to (a) provide estimates of the internal consistency of SL-TDI scores; (b) evaluate the divergent validity of SL-TDI scores by examination of their relationships with the scores on a social desirability responding measure; and (c) examine the test-retest stability of scores from the SL-TDI. Strong support was found for both the reliability and validity of SL-TDI scores.     

A component analysis of "stereotypy as reinforcement" for alternative behavior

Results from several studies have suggested that the opportunity to engage in stereotypic behavior may function as reinforcement for alternative, more socially desirable behaviors. However, the procedural components of this intervention include several distinct operations whose effects have not been analyzed separately. While measuring the occurrence of stereotypy and an alternative behavior (manipulation of leisure materials), we exposed 3 participants to three or four components of a "stereotypy as reinforcement" contingency: (a) continuous access to materials, (b) prompts to manipulate materials, (c) restricted access to stereotypy (i.e., response blocking), and (d) access to stereotypy contingent on manipulating the materials. Continuous access to materials and prompting (a and b) produced negligible results. Restriction of stereotypy (c) produced a large increase in the alternative behavior of 2 participants, suggesting that response restriction per se may occasion alternative behavior. However, contingent access to stereotypy (d) was necessary to increase the 3rd participant's object manipulation; this finding provided some support for the use of stereotypy as reinforcement for alternative behavior. Finally, when transfer of the effects of intervention was assessed during periods in which active intervention components were withdrawn, the alternative behavior was maintained for 1 participant.     

Response acquisition under direct and indirect contingencies of reinforcement

We compared the effects of direct and indirect reinforcement contingencies on the performance of 6 individuals with profound developmental disabilities. Under both contingencies, completion of identical tasks (opening one of several types of containers) produced access to identical reinforcers. Under the direct contingency, the reinforcer was placed inside the container to be opened; under the indirect contingency, the therapist held the reinforcer and delivered it to the participant upon task completion. One participant immediately performed the task at 100% accuracy under both contingencies. Three participants showed either more immediate or larger improvements in performance under the direct contingency. The remaining 2 participants showed improved performance only under the direct reinforcement contingency. Data taken on the occurrence of "irrelevant" behaviors under the indirect contingency (e.g., reaching for the reinforcer instead of performing the task) provided some evidence that these behaviors may have interfered with task performance and that their occurrence was a function of differential stimulus control.     

Expectancies generated by recent exposure to melodic sequences

In four experiments, we examined the effects of exposure to unfamiliar tone sequences on melodic expectancy and memory. In Experiment 1, 30 unfamiliar tone sequences (target sequences) were presented to listeners three times each in random order (exposure phase), and listeners recorded the number of notes in each sequence. Listeners were then presented target and novel sequences and rated how well the final note continued the pattern of notes that preceded it. Novel sequences were identical to target sequences, except for the final note. Ratings were significantly higher for target sequences than for novel sequences, illustrating the influence of exposure on melodic expectancy. Experiment 2 confirmed that without exposure to target sequences, ratings were equivalent for target and novel sequences. In Experiment 3, new listeners were assessed for explicit memory for target sequences following the exposure phase. Recognition of target sequences was above chance, but unrelated to expectancy judgments in Experiment 1. Experiment 4 replicated the exposure effect, using a modified experiment design, and confirmed that the effect is not dependent on explicit memory for sequences. We discuss the idea that melodic expectancies are influenced by implicit memory for recently heard melodic patterns.