Media exposure, mood, and body image dissatisfaction: an experimental test of person versus product priming

In the current study, 138 college females were randomly assigned to four media exposure conditions based on the presence or absence of an attractive person (fashion model) and the presence or absence of an appearance-related product. Outcome measures consisted of visual analogue ratings of multiple body image and mood variables. The results revealed a significant main effect for person, indicating that the presence of a model increased levels of body dissatisfaction and negative mood. No product effect emerged and there was no significant interaction between person and product. These findings suggest that the appearance priming effect of media exposure on body dissatisfaction and mood is specific to a person stimulus, with no additional effect promoted by a generic appearance-relevant stimulus.     

Instructions and stimulus categorizing in a measure of stimulus generalization

In Experiment I, three groups of 20 Ss each were exposed to a light of 550 mμ (yellowish-green) for 60 sec and then viewed a random sequence of wavelengths with instructions to respond only to the original color. The instructions given the three groups were worded differently in an attempt to vary the strength of a set-to-discriminate assumed to be created by this procedure. The three groups produced similar gradients, each with a peak of responding at 540 mμ, in agreement with Kalish's (1958) published gradient for the 550 mμ standard stimulus value. It was suggested that the nature of the task is such that a strong discriminatory set is produced regardless of the wording of the instructions.

A temporal analysis of the gradient as it develops during the testing revealed that initially the peak of responding occurs at 550 mμ; but as testing progresses, it shifts gradually in the direction of the shorter wavelengths (purer greens). Experiment II was performed to test the generality of the phenomenon of regression to the primary color. Two groups of 20 Ss each were tested for generalization following exposure to 510 mμ (bluish-green) and 525 mμ (pure green), respectively. We predicted that the 510 mμ gradient would reveal a progressive shift toward the longer wavelengths (purer greens), whereas the 525 mμ gradient would show no tendency to shift. The results were strikingly in accord with these predictions.

We concluded that although a physiological process could not be ruled out, the verbal labeling of the standard stimulus value may well be responsible for the regression of the gradient toward the primary color.

     

Syntactic prediction during self-paced reading is age invariant

Controversy exists as to whether, compared to young adults, older adults are more, equally or less likely to make linguistic predictions while reading. While previous studies have examined age effects on the prediction of upcoming words, the prediction of upcoming syntactic structures has been largely unexplored. We compared the benefit that young and older readers gain when the syntactic structure is made predictable, as well as potential age differences in the costs involved in making predictions. In a self-paced reading study, 60 young and 60 older adults read sentences in which noun-phrase coordination (e.g. large pizza or tasty calzone) is made predictable through the inclusion of the word either earlier in the sentence. Results showed a benefit of the presence of either in the second half of the coordination phrase, and a cost of the presence of either in the first half. We observed no age differences in the benefit or costs of making these predictions; Bayes factor analyses offered strong evidence that these effects are age invariant. Together, these findings suggest that both older and younger adults make similar strength syntactic predictions with a similar level of difficulty. We relate this age invariance in syntactic prediction to specific aspects of the ageing process.     

Shame, Guilt, Ego Development and the Five-Factor Model of Personality

Shame, guilt, and ego development are conceptually interrelated constructs, yet their empirical relations have not yet been examined. Further, these constructs have not yet been mapped onto the widely used Five-Factor Model. In Study 1, relations were examined between these three domains within a sample of Australian university students. Two types of guilt were distinguished, Empathic Guilt (associated with Agreeableness) and Anxious Guilt (associated with Neuroticism). The relationship between Shame and Ego Level was found to be curvilinear, with Shame greatest for persons at intermediate stages of ego development. In Study 2, relations between ego development and the Five-Factor Model were further examined. Across both studies, Ego Level was best predicted from Conscientiousness among men and from Openness among women. Relations between Ego Level, proneness to shame and guilt, and the five factors were typically modest, suggesting that these represent complementary approaches to the study of personality.     

FIXED-TIME SCHEDULES ATTENUATE EXTINCTION-INDUCED PHENOMENA IN THE TREATMENT OF SEVERE ABERRANT BEHAVIOR

We compared the effects of extinction (EXT) and fixed-time (FT) schedules as treatment for severe problem behavior displayed by 3 individuals with developmental disabilities. First, functional analyses identified the reinforcers maintaining aberrant behavior for all 3 individuals. Next, EXT and FT schedules were compared using a multielement design. During EXT, the reinforcer maintaining problem behavior was withheld. During FT, the reinforcers were presented response independently at preset intervals. Results showed that FT schedules were generally more effective than EXT schedules in reducing aberrant behavior. FT schedules may be used in situations when extinction-induced phenomena are problematic.     

Impact of Rater Beliefs Regarding Performance Appraisal and Its Organizational Context on Appraisal Quality

The relationship between attitudes and beliefs regarding performance appraisal and its organizational context and three measures of rating quality (i.e., rating level, discrimination among ratees, discrimination among rating dimensions) were examined. Eighteen of twenty-four directional predictions about the correlations between attitudinal measures and rating behavior measures were supported. However, because of the expected weak to moderate relationships between predictors and criteria and the use of small samples, statistical power was generally low, and many of the individual observed correlations failed to reach significance. Nevertheless, the consistent pattern of support for the directional predictions suggests that the attitudes and beliefs studied here provide a useful basis for understanding performance appraisal behaviors.     

Posthypnotic Responding Away from the Hypnotic Setting

We examined posthypnotic suggestion away from the laboratory. In Experiment 1, high-hypnotizable subjects were given a posthypnotic suggestion (of limited or unlimited duration) or a social request (of unlimited duration) to mail one postcard every day to the experimenter. Subjects given a social request rather than a posthypnotic suggestion sent more postcards, and those given a limited-duration suggestion responded differently from those given an unlimited-duration suggestion. In Experiment 2, real, hypnotized and simulating, unhypnotized subjects were given a posthypnotic suggestion, and nonhypnotic control subjects were given a social request, to mail one postcard every day; the suggestion or request was of either limited or unlimited duration. Real, hypnotized subjects sent more postcards than simulators; control subjects sent as many postcards as real, hypnotized subjects; and subjects given a suggestion or request of limited duration sent more than those given one of unlimited duration. The findings highlight the interaction of individual differences and the social context of the suggestion or request. They underscore important aspects of experience and behavior associated with posthypnotic responding away from the hypnotic setting.     

Eye movement of perceivers during audiovisualspeech perception

Perceiver eye movements were recorded during audiovisual presentations of extended monologues. Monologues were presented at different image sizes and with different levels of acoustic masking noise. Two clear targets of gaze fixation were identified, the eyes and the mouth. Regardless of image size, perceivers of both Japanese and English gazed more at the mouth as masking noise levels increased. However, even at thehighest noise levels and largest image sizes, subjects gazed at the mouth only about half the time. For the eye target, perceivers typically gazed at one eye more than the other, and the tendency became stronger at higher noise levels. English perceivers displayed more variety of gaze-sequence patterns (e.g., left eye to mouth to left eye to right eye) and persisted in using them at higher noise levels than did Japanese perceivers. No segment-level correlations were found between perceiver eye motions and phoneme identity of the stimuli.     

Kindergarten Children's Gender-Role Expectations for Television Actors

This study examined four- and five-year-oldchildren's predictions concerning the sexof personscarrying out a variety of common activities andoccupations on television. The purpose of the study wasto investigate the possibility that young childrenmay have stereotyped beliefs and expectations which canbe applied in the course of television viewing.Preschoolers of European Australian background viewed short scenes establishing the need for avariety of activities and in each case were asked toindicate who would perform the activity: a man, a womanor both. The children's responses revealed strong gender stereotyped expectations, and these werestrongest in the case of masculine stereotypedactivities. With age, children were more likely to makestereotyped judgments about the ability of males andfemales to perform the activities. The children'sestimates of their own future competence in theactivities also indicated stereotypical beliefs, withthe older girls more likelyto rejectmasculineactivities. It is argued that children's preconceivedexpectations furnish an organizational basis for theirinterpretation of gender related information intelevision.     

A COMPARISON OF REINFORCER ASSESSMENT METHODS: THE UTILITY OF VERBAL AND PICTORIAL CHOICE PROCEDURES

We compared three methods of stimulus preference assessment for verbal children and specifically evaluated the utility of a verbal choice procedure for assessing relative reinforcer value. Using a token system, relative preference for five categories of reinforcers, representing 15 different stimuli, was assessed by three methods: a reinforcer survey, a verbal stimulus-choice questionnaire, and a pictorial stimulus-choice procedure. Results showed that the verbal and pictorial stimulus-choice assessments accurately identified high- and low-preference categories for 3 of 4 participants. Survey results alone often rated multiple categories as high preference, were less likely to identify low-preference categories, and were less likely to correspond with the results of a reinforcer assessment.