"Me versus just us versus us all" categorization and cooperation in nested social dilemmas

In its generic form, a social dilemma poses a conflict between private and collective interests. People are often faced, however, with a conflict between private, (sub)group, and collective interests. This study examines participants' simultaneous weighing of these 3 nested interests. The results show that increasing the salience of social categorization of any level of the hierarchy (i.e., 6 individuals, 2 subgroups. 1 collective) increases participants' concern for and contributions to the corresponding level of interest (Experiment 1). One can promote concern for and contributions to the collective interest, which are lowest under categorization as 2 subgroups, by individuating the members of the individuals' own subgroup and/or the opposing subgroup (Experiment 2) and by cross-categorization with the opposing subgroup (Experiment 3).     

Satisficing in hypothesis generation

Research in hypothesis generation suggests that people might act as satisficers and be less likely to generate plausible alternative hypotheses when they already have a hypothesis that accounts for the data in hand. Three experiments simulated scientific hypothesis development. In all 3, participants who had been given a hypothesis consistent with available data generated proportionally fewer of the simplest alternative hypotheses than participants given no such satisficing hypothesis. Furthermore, participant satisficing occurred regardless of whether the provided hypothesis was generated a priori or post hoc and despite high incentives for completeness. Limitations and implications of these findings are discussed for hypothesis development and the practice of taking post hoc hypotheses suggested by one's results and presenting them as a priori hypotheses.     

Trichotillomania: impact on psychosocial functioning and quality of life

This study explored the impact of hair pulling on psychosocial functioning for patients diagnosed with trichotillomania (TTM; n = 28). TTM patients were compared to age and gender-matched groups of psychiatric patients without TTM (n = 28) and nonpsychiatric control volunteers (NC, n = 28) on measures of psychological distress, functioning/quality of life, and self-esteem. Results indicated that TTM patients reported more severe psychosocial impairments than did NC volunteers; however, these differences were mediated by differences in level of depression. Regression analyses indicated significant relationships between some measures of psychosocial functioning and severity of hair pulling, independent of level of depression. Finally, an interview of the impact of hair pulling on 6 domains of daily functioning (negative affect/negative self-evaluations, grooming, recreational activities, social interaction, work/housework productivity, and physical health) indicated common and wide-ranging impairments for both lifetime and current (i.e., past week) ratings. These results highlight the importance of promoting and improving resources for the clinical care of TTM patients, and provide some directions for clinicians to enhance assessment of interference caused by TTM.     

Differentiating anxiety and depression in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder

To examine affect and cognition in differentiating anxiety and depression, 83 older participants with generalized anxiety disorder completed the Cognitive Checklist (CCL) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). A 3-factor solution was found for the PANAS: positive affect (PA), anxiety and anger (Negative Affect 1 [NA-1]), and guilt and shame (Negative Affect 2 [NA-2]). A 2-factor structure was noted for the CCL. Correlations with anxiety and depression measures suggested that the CCL Depression (CCL-D) subscale showed stronger correlations with depression, whereas the CCL Anxiety subscale did not uniquely correlate with anxiety. The NA-1 subscale correlated positively with measures of depression and anxiety, whereas the PA subscale showed negative correlations. Hierarchical regression suggested that the CCL-D subscale was a significant predictor of self-reported depression.     

Does accuracy matter? A review of the consequences of accurate personality impressions as a function of context and content

What are the implications of seeing others as they see themselves? That is, does viewing others accurately have consequences, positive or negative, to relationship evaluations (e.g., liking)? To address this, the current article provides a comprehensive review of the personality accuracy literature and discusses related work from the self-verification and empathic accuracy domains. We specifically explore whether the consequences of accurate perceptions could be influenced by two key categories of moderators: the context of the impression (e.g., high vs. low stakes) and content of the impression (e.g., desirability of traits). Lastly, we discuss future directions to aid our understanding of this question.     

Eye movement control during reading: II. Frequency of refixating a word

An analysis of over 40,000 eye fixations made by college students during reading indicates that the frequency of immediately refixating a word following an initial eye fixation on it varies with the location of that fixation. The refixation frequency is lowest near the center of the word, positively accelerating with distance from the center. The data are well fit by a parabolic function. Assuming that refixation frequency is related to the frequency of successful word identification, the observed curvilinear relation results naturally from models that postulate a linear decrease in visual information with retinal eccentricity. A single letter difference in fixation location in a word can make a sizeable difference in the likelihood of refixating that word. The effects of word length and cultural frequency on the frequency of refixating are also examined.     

Asymmetric influence in mock jury deliberation: jurors' bias for leniency

Investigators have frequently noted a leniency bias in mock jury research, in which deliberation appears to induce greater leniency in criminal mock jurors. One manifestation of this bias, the asymmetry effect, suggests that proacquittal factions are more influential than proconviction factions of comparable size. A meta-analysis indicated that these asymmetry effects are reliable across a variety of experimental contexts. Experiment 1 examined the possibility that the leniency bias is restricted to the typical college-student subject population. The decisions of college-student and community mock jurors in groups beginning deliberation with equal faction sizes (viz., 2:2) were compared. The magnitude of the asymmetry effect did not differ between the two populations. We hypothesized that the asymmetry effect was caused by an asymmetric prodefendant standard of proof--the reasonable-doubt standard. In Experiment 2, subjects received either reasonable-doubt or preponderance-of-evidence instructions. After providing initial verdict preferences, some subjects deliberated in groups composed with an initial 2:2 split, whereas other subjects privately generated arguments for each verdict option. A significant asymmetry was found for groups in the reasonable-doubt condition, but group verdicts were symmetrical under the preponderance-of-evidence instructions. Shifts toward leniency in individual verdict preferences occurred for group members, but not for subjects who performed the argument-generation task. The theoretical and applied significance of these findings is discussed.     

Gender differences in anger and fear as a function of situational context

Gender differences in the reported intensity of anger and fear toward hypothetical males and females were explored in three age groups (6–12 year olds, 14–16 year olds, and adults over 30) located in two different geographic areas. The samples were primarily Caucasian and included a wide range of socioeconomic groups. Subjects reported on the intensity of feelings elicited by characters in an emotion story task in which three aspects of situational context were varied: the gender of the story characters eliciting the feeling (all situations), the stereotypic gender-typed or cross-gender behavior of the eliciting character (four situations), and the affective quality of the situations (four situations). Across all three age groups, situations that were frightening, anger-provoking, or that depicted stereotypic male-negative behavior elicited the most consistent subject gender and character gender differences in reported fear and anger. Relative to males, females of all ages reported more fear in frightening, anger-producing, and male-negative stereotypic situations. Males were reported to be more frightening and anger-producing than were females in those same situations. The data also suggested that with development, females reported less intense fear of females, while males reported less intense fear of males.This research was supported by a Gender Roles grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. We appreciate their support. We would also like to thank the public school systems of Milton, Norwood, and Watertown, Massachusetts, and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Finally, we would like to thank Lance Davidow, John Houlihan, and Theodore Cross for statistical consultation and/or computer programming, as well as all the parents, children, and adolescents who participated in the study.     

Relational Needs in Late Adolescent Separation-lndividuation

In this article the authors critically examine empirical and conceptual research suggesting that adolescent separation-individuation progresses linearly from dependence to independence, without including adaptive forms of connectedness and maladaptive forms of separateness. An investigation of 87, mostly first- and second-year and primarily White, college students demonstrated that participation in relationships that supported separateness, mirroring, and nurturance needs was associated with freedom from depressive complaints. Conversely, engulfment anxiety, separation anxiety and denial of dependency were associated with such complaints. Results suggested that some forms of connectedness and separateness were associated with adaptiveness, whereas other forms of connectedness and separateness were associated with distress.