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61.
Data in social and behavioral sciences are often hierarchically organized. Special statistical procedures that take into account the dependence of such observations have been developed. Among procedures for 2-level covariance structure analysis, Muthén’s maximum likelihood (MUML) has the advantage of easier computation and faster convergence. When data are balanced, MUML is equivalent to the maximum likelihood procedure. Simulation results in the literature endorse the MUML procedure also for unbalanced data. This paper studies the analytical properties of the MUML procedure in general. The results indicate that the MUML procedure leads to correct model inference asymptotically when level-2 sample size goes to infinity and the coefficient of variation of the level-1 sample sizes goes to zero. The study clearly identifies the impact of level-1 and level-2 sample sizes on the standard errors and test statistic of the MUML procedure. Analytical results explain previous simulation results and will guide the design or data collection for the future applications of MUML.This research was supported by NSF Grant DMS04-37167.We thank Dr.Bengt Muthén for providing key references. We are also grateful to three expert reviewers for their constructive comments that have led the paper to an improvement over the previous version.This revised article was published online in August 2005 with the PDF paginated correctly.  相似文献   
62.
The authors present in this study a damped oscillator model that provides a direct mathematical basis for testing the notion of emotion as a self-regulatory thermostat. Parameters from this model reflect individual differences in emotional lability and the ability to regulate emotion. The authors discuss concepts such as intensity, rate of change, and acceleration in the context of emotion, and they illustrate the strengths of this approach in comparison with spectral analysis and growth curve models. The utility of this modeling approach is illustrated using daily emotion ratings from 179 college students over 52 consecutive days. Overall, the damped oscillator model provides a meaningful way of representing emotion regulation as a dynamic process and helps identify the dominant periodicities in individuals' emotions.  相似文献   
63.
Haptic identification of real objects is superior to that of raised two-dimensional (2-D) depictions. Three explanations of real-object superiority were investigated: contribution of material information, contribution of 3-D shape and size, and greater potential for integration across the fingers. In Experiment 1, subjects, while wearing gloves that gently attenuated material information, haptically identified real objects that provided reduced cues to compliance, mass, and part motion. The gloves permitted exploration with free hand movement, a single outstretched finger, or five outstretched fingers. Performance decreased over these three conditions but was superior to identification of pictures of the same objects in all cases, indicating the contribution of 3-D structure and integration across the fingers. Picture performance was also better with five fingers than with one. In Experiment 2, the subjects wore open-fingered gloves, which provided them with material information. Consequently, the effect of type of exploration was substantially reduced but not eliminated. Material compensates somewhat for limited access to object structure but is not the primary basis for haptic object identification.  相似文献   
64.
65.
Memory processing in nonhuman animals has been typically tested in situations where the animals are repeatedly trained to retrieve their memory trace, such as delayed matching to sample, serial probe recognition, etc. In contrast, how they utilize incidentally formed memory traces is not well investigated except in rodents. We examined whether domestic dogs could solve an unexpected test based on a single past experience. In Experiment 1, leashed dogs were led to 4 open, baited containers and allowed to eat from 2 of them (Exposure phase). After a walk outside for more than 10?min, during which time the containers were replaced with new identical ones, the dogs were unexpectedly returned to the site and unleashed for free exploration (test phase). Eleven out of 12 dogs first visited one of the containers from which they had not eaten. In Experiment 2, two containers had food in them, one had a nonedible object, and the last one was empty. Dogs visited all 4 containers and were allowed to eat one of the food rewards in the Exposure phase. In the test phase, unleashed dogs first visited the previously baited container from which they had not eaten significantly more often than chance. These results demonstrate that in an unexpected, test dogs may retrieve “what” and “where” information about seen (now invisible) items from incidental memory formed during a single past experience.  相似文献   
66.
Customers allowed to cocreate products are more willing to purchase them eventually because of not only their utilitarian but also their hedonic and experiential value. Experiential responses seem especially relevant in the cocreative consumption of cultural and intangible goods, such as music. To examine how such intangible aspects of cocreation can influence a consumer's intention to purchase, we let two groups of participants rate their experience consuming music in either a traditional or cocreative way, in an experimental situation inspired by the work of American rock band Nine Inch Nails. Participants in the traditional group had to passively watch a series of music videos; participants in the cocreative group were tasked to produce a video montage using the same material. In the traditional group, purchase intention was predicted by music quality, mediated by willingness to reexperience; in the cocreative group, however, purchase intention was only predicted by the consumers' experiential response, with no mediation of either music quality or willingness to reexperience. Additionally, the overall experiential response to music was lower in the cocreative group than in the traditional group, leading to lower intention to purchase. These results suggest that cocreated value for intangible goods is predicted at least as much by the consumers' experiential response as by their evaluation of product quality. It also suggests that there is nothing systematically positive in having consumers participate in the coproduction of intangible goods and that research is needed to identify the factors predicting the perceived quality of a cocreative experience. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   
67.
Influencing attitudes toward near and distant objects   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
It is argued that the temporal distance of attitude objects systematically changes how the object is mentally represented, and thus influences the strength of particular persuasive appeals. Three experiments tested the hypothesis that people preferentially attend to arguments that highlight primary, abstract (high-level) vs. incidental, concrete (low-level) features when attitude objects are temporally distant vs. near. Results suggested that when attitude objects are temporally distant vs. near, arguments emphasizing primary vs. secondary features (Study 1), desirability vs. feasibility features (Study 2), and general classes vs. specific cases are more persuasive (Study 3). The relation of construal theory to dual process theories of persuasion and persuasion phenomena, such as personal relevance effects and functional matching effects, are discussed.  相似文献   
68.
To investigate the cognitive processes underlying creative inspiration, we tested the extent to which viewing or copying prior examples impacted creative output in art. In Experiment 1, undergraduates made drawings under three conditions: (a) copying an artist's drawing, then producing an original drawing; (b) producing an original drawing without having seen another's work; and (c) copying another artist's work, then reproducing that artist's style independently. We discovered that through copying unfamiliar abstract drawings, participants were able to produce creative drawings qualitatively different from the model drawings. Process analyses suggested that participants' cognitive constraints became relaxed, and new perspectives were formed from copying another's artwork. Experiment 2 showed that exposure to styles of artwork considered unfamiliar facilitated creativity in drawing, while styles considered familiar did not do so. Experiment 3 showed that both copying and thoroughly viewing artwork executed using an unfamiliar style facilitated creativity in drawing, whereas merely thinking about alternative styles of artistic representation did not do so. These experiments revealed that deep encounters with unfamiliar artworks—whether through copying or prolonged observation—change people's cognitive representations of the act of drawing to produce novel artwork.  相似文献   
69.
Seven squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) previously trained on reverse-reward tasks were presented with the original "1-versus-4" task after a 5-year interval without reverse-reward experience (Experiment 1). None of them reliably selected the smaller food array; however, at around chance level, their performance was superior to when they were first exposed to the task almost 6 years previously, suggesting some long-term memory retention. One naive monkey consistently selected the larger array, as expected. In Experiment 2, trials consisting of 1 versus 1 piece of two qualitatively different types of food were interspersed among familiar 1-versus-4 trials. None of five monkeys tested reliably selected the less-preferred food to get the more preferred food as the reward, and one monkey scored below chance. However, when one piece of low-preference food was paired with four pieces of high-preference food (Experiment 3), all four monkeys tested avoided reaching for the latter and thereby obtained it as the reward; two monkeys obtained perfect scores on these trials. These two monkeys were trained on a specific qualitative reverse-reward pairing and then again tested on new pairings (Experiment 4), but transfer was incomplete. Compound trials that pit quantity against quality in novel ways appear taxing for squirrel monkeys, despite competence in reverse-reward on both dimensions separately.  相似文献   
70.
The authors applied principal component analysis to investigate muscle activation patterns (M-modes) involved in the automatic postural responses induced by external surface perturbations. They focused on M-mode modulations as responses to the effects of practice, stability of the conditions and perturbed directions. While peak center of mass velocity reduced with practice, M-modes were similar with practice and across stability conditions. In contrast, atypical sway mode coactivations that combined proximal trunk muscles with distal muscles of the opposite lower extremity of the ventral-dorsal side were observed under the unstable conditions in both forward and backward perturbations after practice. In addition, M-modes in the forward translations were characterized by increased cocontraction patterns. Results suggest that compositions of the underlying M-modes show minor differences in each perturbed direction, but practice enhances coactivation patterns combining proximal muscles with distal muscles, and with accompanying cocontraction patterns, under more challenging conditions.  相似文献   
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