Evaluating Generalization of Addition-Fact Fluency Using the Taped-Problems Procedure in a Second-Grade Classroom

A multiple-baseline design across math-fact sets was used to evaluate the effects of a taped-problems intervention on students’ performance with addition facts and their inverses in an intact, rural, second-grade classroom. Results suggested that the procedure was effective in improving fluency on math facts as well as their inverses. Across 3 sets of math facts, 15 students increased their fluency (i.e., average increases of 5 digits correct per min or more) on math-problem sets and these improvements were maintained over time. Additionally, results provide evidence that these increases generalized to inverse-problem sets. However, 4 students showed little gains (i.e., average increases of fewer than 5 digits correct per min) on math problems. Discussion focuses on evaluating academic interventions for generalization and directions for future research.     

Spoiled milk: an experimental examination of bias against mothers who breastfeed

Drawing from the objectification literature, three experiments tested the hypothesis that breastfeeding mothers are the victims of bias. In Study 1, participants rated a woman who had breastfed as incompetent. Study 2 replicated these effects and determined that the bias was specific to conditions that sexualized the breast. In Study 3, participants interacted with a confederate in which attention was drawn to her as a mother, as a mother who breastfeeds, as a woman with sexualized breasts, or in a neutral condition. Results showed the breastfeeding confederate was rated significantly less competent in general, in math and work specifically, and was less likely to be hired compared to all other conditions, except for the sexualized breast condition. Importantly, the breastfeeding mother emphasis and the sexualized breast emphasis resulted in equally negative evaluations. Results suggest that although breastfeeding may be economical and healthy, the social cost is potentially great.     

Social Support, Social Undermining, and Coping in Underemployed and Unemployed Persons

Participants (94 unemployed, 77 underemployed) were administered scales tapping social support, social undermining, coping, and distress. We hypothesised that the unemployed would exhibit less social support but more social undermining and distress than the underemployed; females would report more social support but less social undermining; social support would better predict coping than social undermining; social undermining would better predict distress than social support. The unemployed reported less social support, more distress, and poorer coping. Males reported less social support and more emotion-focused coping. Social support significantly predicted distress and coping. No group or gender differences were identified for social undermining, which did not predict distress or coping. We discuss the role of social undermining and distress in the unemployed.     

The School Bully: Assessing the Problem, Developing Interventions, and Future Research Directions

A growing concern exists among educators regarding the prevalence and impact of bullying behavior in the public schools. This behavior has serious repercussions for school climate and school safety in general. In addition, strong indicators suggest bullying behavior appears to be a precursor for community violence. Studies indicate that educators are not fully aware of the prevalence or the seriousness of bullying behavior in schools. A need exists to assess systematically the extent to which bullying behavior may be present in a given school. The critical features of several bullying assessment instruments were examined. In response to the growing concern regarding bullying, a large number of programs designed to address bullying are emerging. However, it is recommended that before selecting a program three criteria should be considered: the program (a) is supported by research; (b) is based on sound behavioral principles; and (c) emphasizes teaching prosocial behavior to replace bullying behavior.     

Allergic disorders and attention deficit disorder in children

It has been suggested that children with attention deficit disorder-hyperactivity (ADDH) are likely to show allergic disorders, and that both ADDH and allergic disorders may share a common biological background. In a large sample of children from the general population we found no association between parent, teacher, and self-reports of ADDH behaviors and a history of allergic disorders (asthma, eczema, rhinitis, and urticaria) at ages 9 or 13 years. Similarly, reports of ADDH behaviors at age 13 years were not related to level of atopic responsiveness by skin test or serum IgE levels. Our findings call into question the hypothesis that there is a relationship between ADDH and allergic disorder.The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Research Unit is supported by the Health Research Council of New Zealand, and involves several departments of the University of Otago. The authors are indebted to the many people whose contributions made this study possible, and in particular the members of the sample and their parents.     

An automated runway: Responding without postreinforcement goal tracking

The behaviors of rodents in manual runways are subject to experimenter variability and error and to the stimulus properties of handling. Automated shuttle runways are limited by the shuttle response itself. The response is difficult to learn and maintain because it requires that subjects leave an area associated with reinforcement. This report describes an automated analogue of the traditional straight alley that features unidirectional responding and a goal area physically removed from the runway after each trial. A series of studies demonstrate that rats and gerbils quickly acquire and maintain a stable appetitive running response. This response also provides a sensitive measure for the effects of conditioned fear.     

Category number impacts rule-based but not information-integration category learning: further evidence for dissociable category-learning systems

Category number effects on rule-based and information-integration category learning were investigated. Category number affected accuracy and the distribution of best-fitting models in the rule-based task but had no effect on accuracy and little effect on the distribution of best-fining models in the information-integration task. In the 2 category conditions, rule-based learning was better than information-integration learning, whereas in the 4 category conditions, unidimensional and conjunctive rule-based learning was worse than information-integration learning. Rule-based strategies were used in the 2-category/rule-based condition, but about half of the observers used rule-based strategies in the 4-category unidimensional and conjunctive rule-based conditions. Information-integration strategies were used in the 4-category/ information-integration condition and by the end of training were used in the 2-category/information-integration condition.     

Competition and cooperation in the five-factor model: individual differences in achievement orientation

The authors investigated the relationship between basic achievement orientations of competition and cooperation and the five-factor model of personality as measured by the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992). They examined 2 types of competition: hypercompetition (R. M. Ryckman, B. Thornton, & J. C. Butler, 1994) and personal development competition (R. M. Ryckman, M. Hammer, L. M. Kaczor, & J. A. Gold, 1996), as conceptualized by K. Horney (1937). In a sample of 251 young adults, 14% to 38% of the variance in achievement orientations was collectively predicted by NEO-PI-R domain scales. Of NEO-PI-R predictors, Agreeableness was most important in characterizing differences between various achievement orientations; Agreeableness was negatively related to hypercompetition, positively related to cooperation, and unrelated to personal development competition. Extraversion was positively related to both cooperation and personal development competition but was unrelated to hypercompetition. In contrast, Openness and Conscientiousness were least helpful in differentiating among achievement orientations. These findings support the useful application of the NEO-PI-R in achievement research and highlight competition and cooperation as interpersonally laden achievement orientations.     

Neighborhood context, personality, and stressful life events as predictors of depression among African American women

The authors tested neighborhood context, negative life events, and negative affectivity as predictors of the onset of major depression among 720 African American women. Neighborhood-level economic disadvantage (e.g., percentage of residents below the poverty line) and social disorder (e.g., delinquency, drug use) predicted the onset of major depression when controlling for individual-level demographic characteristics. Neighborhood-level disadvantage/disorder interacted with negative life events, such that women who experienced recent negative life events and lived in high disadvantage/disorder neighborhoods were more likely to become depressed than were those who lived in more benign settings, both concurrently and over a 2-year period. Neighborhood disadvantage/disorder can be viewed as a vulnerability factor that increases susceptibility to depression following the experience of negative life events.