Dual process theory and the context of choice: Comments on Dhar and Gorlin

Dhar and Gorlin show that default-interventionist dual-process theory differentially classifies several effects in the consumer choice literature and makes differential predictions across a variety of manipulations. One of the most startling differential classifications in their model is that it drives a wedge between the attraction and enhancement effects, because they arise from System 1 and System 2, respectively. System-2 bias effects explain why sometimes less complex organisms (nonhumans, human children) can display more normative behavior than human adults. Such a finding does not at all undermine the heuristics and biases research tradition, as is sometimes argued.     

Personality traits as moderators of the associations between deployment experiences and PTSD symptoms in OEF/OIF service members

Abstract

This investigation examined traits from the five-factor model of personality as moderators of the associations of combat and aftermath of battle experiences with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in 214 National Guard/Reserve service members deployed to operations enduring and Iraqi freedom. Extraversion significantly moderated the associations of both combat experiences and aftermath of battle experiences with PTSD severity, with associations weakening as levels of extraversion increased. The relation between aftermath of battle experiences and PTSD was also moderated by the other four personality factors, with the relation being weaker at higher levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness, and lower levels of neuroticism. These results suggest that personality traits may impact individual responses to war trauma, particularly war-related experiences that are not directly threatening to one's safety (i.e., aftermath of battle events vs. actual combat events). Although this investigation was cross-sectional, these findings indicate that personality traits are an important risk/resiliency factor to consider in people's responses to traumatic events.     

How to Develop Collaborative Empiricism in Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Conclusions From the C&BP Special Series

In this concluding commentary, we reflect on the component parts of the special series (see Kazantzis, Cronin, Dattilio, & K. S. Dobson, 2013--this issue, for the introductory article) in order to reconstitute the “whole” concept of collaborative empiricism in CBT. Each contribution of the special series clearly acknowledges that collaboration and empiricism are imperative for effective CBT, as well as to further elucidate these concepts in a range of central and timely therapeutic contexts. The articulation of the component elements of collaboration and empiricism is discussed as an important contribution, and one that assists in distinguishing central features and clarifying differences between collaboration as defined in CBT. A second important theme of the special series is the further specification of the construct of empiricism as it relates to the practice of CBT. The special series provides clarification for the role of collaborative empiricism in therapeutic processes of case formulation, in-session structure, and self-monitoring to assist in assessment, as well as in the use of core techniques such as exposure, work for specific clinical groups such as psychosis, and adaption of the work in a manner that is respectful and responsive to the client’s culture, preferences, and abilities. Case examples illustrate the importance of relying on the client’s experience, rather than general principles or logic, and the use of the client’s experience both specifically and explicitly, and as a measure for the evaluation of therapeutic interventions.     

Cognitive Reorganization and the development of chess expertise

One current research strategy in the study of expertise is to compare experts and novices. An important aspect of decision making involves looking for similarities among problem types. Little is known about such processes. We used grid technique to examine similarity judgments associated with different levels of chess expertise. Novice, expert, and master chess players evaluated 4 sets of 12 chess boards. Average FIC scores showed a curvilinear relation to expertise, suggesting increasing differentiation followed by integration in cognitive frameworks for construing board positions. Additional cognitive measures based on move generation tended to support and extend this structural model.     

Psychometric Properties of Bully,Fighting, and Victimization Scales Among Clinically Referred Youth

Bullying involvement is a multidimensional issue and a significant concern for school-aged youth. However, research on bullying involvement within clinical samples is limited. The present study examines the psychometric properties of the University of Illinois Bully, Fighting, and Victimization Scales among children and adolescents presenting for mood symptoms at a behavioral health outpatient clinic. Patients (n = 165) with an age range of 8–18 years were included in this investigation. Item frequencies, internal consistency, and construct validity were examined while confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were conducted. Results showed that the scales were low to moderately correlated with each other. Internal consistencies were acceptable for the Bully (α = .70), Fighting (α = .84), and Victimization (α = .88) Scales. Exploratory factor analysis revealed clean three-factor solutions with items loading on their intended factors and with few cross-loadings. Fit of the confirmatory factor analysis was good when items were treated as ordinal and two items were allowed to cross-load on more than one factor. The University of Illinois Bully, Fighting, and Victimization Scales show utility for use with clinically referred youth.     

Structural constraints and object similarity in analogical mapping and inference

Theories of analogical reasoning have viewed relational structure as the dominant determinant of analogical mapping and inference, while assigning lesser importance to similarity between individual objects. An experiment is reported in which these two sources of constraints on analogy are placed in competition under conditions of high relational complexity. Results demonstrate equal importance for relational structure and object similarity, both in analogical mapping and in inference generation. The human data were successfully simulated using a computational analogy model (LISA) that treats both relational correspondences and object similarity as soft constraints that operate within a limited-capacity working memory; but not with a model (SME) that treats relational structure as pre-eminent.     

Pragmatic reasoning from multiple points of view: A response

Abstract

In our response we consider several broad sets of issues raised in the commentaries on our target article. We provide an elaboration of the general theory of pragmatic reasoning schemas and of the mechanisms posited to explain pespective effects and other contextual influences on reasoning. We consider the strengths and limitations of a number of alternative proposals offered by the commentators. Finally, we discuss possible links between pragmatic schemas and more elementary “building blocks” for human reasoning     

Efficiency in data gathering: Set size effects in the selection task

Two experiments were conducted with variants of Wason's (1966 Wason, P. C. 1966. “Reasoning”. In New horizons in psychology, Edited by: Foss, B. M. Harmondsworth, , UK: Penguin.  [Google Scholar]) selection task. The common focus was the effect of differences in the sizes of the sets represented by P and not-Q in assertions of the form If P then Q (conditional) or All P are Q (categorical). Results support the conclusion that such set size differences affect the strategies people adopt when asked to determine, efficiently, the truth or falsity of such assertions, but they do not entirely negate the tendency to select the term represented by P (the antecedent of the conditional or the subject of the categorical) in preference to the term represented by not-Q (the complement of the consequent of the conditional or the complement of the predicate of the categorical). Several possible explanations of this perseverance are considered. Results also support the conclusion that people find it easier to assess categorical assertions than logically equivalent conditional assertions.     

The Clergy Occupational Distress Index (CODI): Background and Findings from Two Samples of Clergy

This study demonstrates the reliability and validity of the Clergy Occupational Distress Index (CODI). The five-item index allows researchers to measure the frequency that clergy, who traditionally have not been the subject of occupational health studies, experience occupational distress. We assess the reliability and validity of the index using two samples of clergy: a nationally representative sample of clergy and a sample of clergy from nine Protestant denominations. Exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach’s scores are generated. Construct validity is measured by examining the association between CODI scores and depressive symptoms while controlling for demographic, ministerial, and health variables. In both samples, the five items of the CODI load onto a single factor and the Cronbach’s alpha scores are robust. The regression model indicates that a high score on the CODI (i.e., more frequent occupational distress) is positively associated with having depressive symptoms within the last 4 weeks. The CODI can be used to identify clergy who frequently experience occupational distress and to understand how occupational distress affects clergy’s health, ministerial career, and the functioning of their congregation.     

Improving insight and non‐insight problem solving with brief interventions

Developing brief training interventions that benefit different forms of problem solving is challenging. In earlier research, Chrysikou (2006) showed that engaging in a task requiring generation of alternative uses of common objects improved subsequent insight problem solving. These benefits were attributed to a form of implicit transfer of processing involving enhanced construction of impromptu, on‐the‐spot or ‘ad hoc’ goal‐directed categorizations of the problem elements. Following this, it is predicted that the alternative uses exercise should benefit abilities that govern goal‐directed behaviour, such as fluid intelligence and executive functions. Similarly, an indirect intervention – self‐affirmation (SA) – that has been shown to enhance cognitive and executive performance after self‐regulation challenge and when under stereotype threat, may also increase adaptive goal‐directed thinking and likewise should bolster problem‐solving performance. In Experiment 1, brief single‐session interventions, involving either alternative uses generation or SA, significantly enhanced both subsequent insight and visual–spatial fluid reasoning problem solving. In Experiment 2, we replicated the finding of benefits of both alternative uses generation and SA on subsequent insight problem‐solving performance, and demonstrated that the underlying mechanism likely involves improved executive functioning. Even brief cognitive– and social–psychological interventions may substantially bolster different types of problem solving and may exert largely similar facilitatory effects on goal‐directed behaviours.