The effects of position in a display upon problem solving

Sixty-four subjects, aged between 15 and 72 years were told how to carry out a problem-solving task, whose difficulty could be varied by changing the position of an index card in relation to a display and control.

The outstanding feature, particularly of the older group's performance was the repetition of the same two kinds of mistake. Their failure seemed mainly due to an inability to rid themselves of their wrong “solutions,” in spite of the constant information indicating the mistake at each position. Whilst these differences between the age groups were hot pronounced at the easiest task, they were at the most difficult.

It is suggested that: Firstly, the procedure of giving a subject the solution to a problem and observing how he reconciles his information with it, though only operating in a circumscribed area of problem-solving, is a genuine example of thinking, and, particularly where certain kinds of mistake can be predicted, it enables the experimenter to gain a more exact impression of what a subject is doing. Secondly, the manipulation of spatial contiguities lends itself to flexible and fairly precise measurement, and the principle might usefully be extended to other variables such as size, time intervals, colour, etc.     

Same-sex imitation: The avoidance of cross-sex models or the acceptance of same-sex models?

This experiment examined whether acceptance of same-sex behavior and rejection of opposite-sex behavior contribute equally to the same-sex imitation effect in both boys and girls. Third- and fourth-grade children observed four male and four female peer models display preferences toward a variety of objects. For each object, only four models were asked for their preferences. In this way, it was possible for the objects to become sex-linked depending on the sex composition of the group of models endorsing a particular item. Subsequently, children were presented with pairwise combinations of the more masculine, feminine, or neutral objects and asked their preference. Results indicated that although there is no difference between boys' and girls' acceptance of same-sex behavior, boys tend to reject opposite-sex behavior more than girls.     

Success and satisfaction as a function of environmental constraint and origin-pawn feelings1

This research investigated causal relationships among situational and dispositional determinants of origin-pawn (O-P) feelings and perceptions of task satisfaction and success. Seventy-seven college students performed a task under one of three conditions—freedom, moderate freedom, or high constraint. Analysis of data through multiple regression and path-analytic techniques indicated that O-P feelings are a function of both situation and disposition. While condition and O-P feelings have direct effects on both success and satisfaction, satisfaction is affected more by the situational element of freedom versus constraint than is success. The path analysis tended to support a previously conceptualized causal model of relationships among the variables.     

Self-evaluations of male and female managers

Two separate samples of males and females holding first-level management positions in United States organizations completed questionnaires which asked for self-evaluation on a number of job-related characteristics and for attributions of causality for successful and unsuccessful job experiences. In support of previous research, results indicated that males evaluated their performance more favorably than did women, and rated themselves as having more ability and greater intelligence. Men also saw ability as more responsible for their success than did women, but the sexes did not differ in attributions to luck, effort, or task. Implications for equal opportunity and potential for change are considered.     

The relationship between personality and affect over the lifespan

This study compared the trait and emotion perspectives of personality development by examining relationships between extraversion, neuroticism, positive and negative affect across the lifespan. A total of 533 volunteers: 228 children and early adolescents (8 to 15 years), 163 late adolescents and young adults (16 to 29 years) and 142 adults (30 to 68 years) completed Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Extraversion correlated significantly with positive affect and neuroticism with negative affect in each age group. As predicted by the emotion perspective, correlations were significantly stronger for adults than children and early adolescents. In addition, extraversion-positive affect and neuroticism-negative affect factors explained less variance for children and early adolescents compared to those of adults.     

Order of Presentation and Verbal Recruitment Strategy Effectiveness1

This study examined the relative effectiveness of three different verbal recruitment strategies (opinion conformity, other enhancement, and self-enhancement) presented in different orders. Sixty undergraduates viewed three recruiters, each of whom used a different recruitment strategy to describe a hypothetical graduate program. Participants rated their impressions of each recruiter and then decided which program to attend. Results indicated that presentation order significantly affected participants' ratings of the opinion conforming and self-enhancing recruiters. Furthermore, although participants generally preferred the other enhancing and opinion conforming recruiters, this preference did not translate into a decision to attend the other enhancer's university. Implications for both the recruitment and impression management literatures are discussed.     

The temporality of illness: Four levels of experience

This essay argues that, while much has been gained by medicine's focus on the spatial aspects of disease in light of developments in modern pathology, too little attention has been given to the temporal experience of illness at the subjective level of the patient. In particular, it is noted that there is a radical distinction between subjective and objective time. Whereas the patient experiences his immediate illness in terms of the ongoing flux of subjective time, the physician conceptualizes the illness as a disease state according to the measurements of objective time. A greater understanding of this disparity in temporal experiencing provides insights into the lived experience of illness and can preclude difficulties in communication between physician and patient.     

Effect of Expresser Role and Type of Self-Touching on Observers' Perceptions1

The effect of a nonverbal behavior frequently displayed during social interaction, self-touching, was analyzed with respect to body location, other nonverbal behaviors, and expressers' role. In Study 1, hypotheses about role (job applicant, medical patient, friend, stranger) and levels of anxiety and familiarity were substantiated. In Study 2, subjects rated females who displayed several types of self-touching (to nose, arm, hand) singly, or in combination with head nodding or leg recrossing, representing the four roles in Study 1. Hypotheses based on types of self-touching and role were supported by linear contrasts; for example, hand rubbing by job applicant and patient, who were expected to experience some anxiety, was judged as more acceptable than for friend or stranger. Discrete self-touching (nose) was evaluated as more expressive and warm than unpatterned self-touching (hand, arm) for friend and stranger. Control scenes (no movement) were rated as more calm and dominant, but less expressive, warm, and interested.