“If you’d wiggled A,then B would’ve changed”

This paper deals with the truth conditions of conditional sentences. It focuses on a particular class of problematic examples for semantic theories for these sentences. I will argue that the examples show the need to refer to dynamic, in particular causal laws in an approach to their truth conditions. More particularly, I will claim that we need a causal notion of consequence. The proposal subsequently made uses a representation of causal dependencies as proposed in Pearl (2000) to formalize a causal notion of consequence. This notion inserted in premise semantics for counterfactuals in the style of Veltman (1976) and Kratzer (1979) will provide a new interpretation rule for conditionals. I will illustrate how this approach overcomes problems of previous proposals and end with some remarks on remaining questions.     

Getting connected: Intergroup contact on Facebook

One correlational study examined whether virtual contact via Facebook is positively related to intergroup relations. The followers of two online campaigns from Iran and Israel—whose countries have been in a politically hostile relationship since the 1980s—indicated the amount of direct and indirect virtual (Facebook) and real-life outgroup contact they have had, a number of quality and affective judgments about that contact, and completed an affective prejudice measure about the respective outgroup. Overall, contact was negatively associated with affective prejudice, providing support for the contact hypothesis in a specific and exclusively virtual setting with citizens of hostile nations. Previously experienced real-life contact did not moderate the results, suggesting that virtual contact has an independent link to positive outgroup attitudes.     

Outstanding language competence and cytoarchitecture in Broca's speech region

Studies on brains of individuals with an exceptional mental capacity are of widespread interest. Here, we analyze the cytoarchitecture of areas 44 and 45 (anatomical correlates of Broca's speech region) of a person with a documented extraordinary competence in language performance (Emil Krebs, E.K.), and compared it with 11 control brains. Morphometry and multivariate statistical analysis revealed significant cytoarchitectonic differences between E.K. and the controls in left and right areas 44, in right 45, and in interhemispheric asymmetries. We conclude, that the exceptional language competence of E.K. may be related to distinct cytoarchitectonic features in Broca's region.     

Doctor-patient relationship and quality of life in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: an exploratory study of the potential mediating role of illness perceptions and acceptance

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterised by unpredictable bowel symptoms. These can be difficult to manage, consequently impacting quality of life (QoL). In addition, a strained doctor–patient relationship is independently reported in the qualitative literature. Given the doctor is often the first port of call for people with IBS, a difficult relationship may influence subsequent IBS management. Research suggests illness perceptions are important in determining IBS outcomes in therapy; however, their association with doctor–patient relationship and QoL is yet to be investigated. This exploratory study aimed to investigate the association between these constructs in IBS, as well as potential mediation by illness perceptions. Online questionnaires measuring doctor–patient relationship, illness perceptions, acceptance and QoL, were completed by 167 participants who reported an IBS diagnosis (144 female, mean age = 44.22 years, SD = 15.91 years). Bootstrapped pathway analysis was used to model the relationship and mediation effects. There was a significant positive correlation between patient–doctor relationship and QoL, r = .258, n = 167, p = .001. There was a significant indirect effect between doctor–patient relationship and QoL through illness coherence and acceptance (bootstrapped estimate = .058, 95%CI Lower-Upper = .02, .095, p = .002). No other indirect effects were observed in combination with good fit indices for the other illness perceptions. Findings suggest a doctor–patient relationship which fosters mutual understanding and helps patients make sense of symptoms, increases their ability to manage their IBS in a psychologically flexible manner, subsequently helping them maintain their QoL.     

Risk preference and choice stochasticity during decisions for other people

In several contexts, such as finance and politics, people make choices that are relevant for others but irrelevant for oneself. Focusing on decision-making under risk, we compared monetary choices made for one’s own interest with choices made on behalf of an anonymous individual. Consistent with the previous literature, other-interest choices were characterized by an increased gambling propensity. We also investigated choice stochasticity, which captures how much decisions vary in similar conditions. An aspect related to choice stochasticity is how much decisions are tuned to the option values, and we found that this was higher during self-interest than during other-interest choices. This effect was observed only in individuals who reported a motivation to distribute rewards unequally, suggesting that it may (at least partially) depend on a motivation to make accurate decisions for others. Our results indicate that, during decision-making under risk, choices for other people are characterized by a decreased tuning to the values of the options, in addition to enhanced risk seeking.     

An Investigation of Entrepreneurs' Venture Persistence Decision: The Contingency Effect of Psychological Ownership and Adversity

We incorporate psychological ownership theory and adversity literature to examine the joint effect of psychological ownership and adversity on entrepreneurs' persistence decision. The results of two experiments and one survey show that both low adversity and high psychological ownership for the venture increase entrepreneurs' likelihood of persistence. We also identify the moderating effect of adversity. Psychological ownership is more relevant to the likelihood of persistence when adversity is high than when it is low. Our research contributes to psychological ownership theory and the entrepreneurial persistence literature and has practical implications for entrepreneurs.     

Perfect apples or sustainable production?—Consumer perspectives from Germany

In recent years, environmental problems, such as resource depletion and biodiversity loss, have come to the forefront of society's attention. Consumption of fruits and vegetables from extensive production systems could decrease food loss and increase biodiversity and more sustainable resource use. However, fruits and vegetables from extensive production systems are not always of perfect external quality, and hence, rejected by consumers. To increase acceptance of imperfect fruits, this study aims to better understand consumers' perceptions of different levels of imperfections, using apples as an example. An online survey with 842 German consumers investigated associations, important apple-buying criteria, organic apple consumption, socio-demographics, and willingness to pay (WTP) for apples with different levels of imperfection. The latter is investigated via contingent valuation. A multiple linear regression was calculated for each level of imperfection. Results show that consumers' WTP for apples differed depending on the level of external imperfections. The majority of consumers accepted slightly imperfect apples; a noticeable share would even buy them at the same price as flawless apples. Apples with heavy imperfections were mainly accepted by consumers who had sustainable buying criteria. To increase acceptance, it is important to tell consumers that their food choice can make an impact on how apples are produced, that imperfect apples come from more sustainable production systems and are of perfect internal quality. And finally, it is important to give specific advice that buying these apples can help to increase sustainable resource use and biodiversity.     

Learning to learn during visual discrimination in group housed dwarf goats (Capra hircus)

Using an automated learning device, we investigated "learning to learn" by dwarf goats (Capra hircus) in what was for them a familiar environment and normal social settings. Nine problems, each consisting of four discriminable black symbols, each with one S-super+ and three different S-super(-), were presented on a computer screen. Mean daily learning success improved over the course of the first four problems, and the improvement was maintained throughout the remaining five problems. The number of trials to reach the learning criterion decreased significantly beginning with problem four. Such results may be interpreted as evidence that the goats were developing a learning set. In the present case, the learning set appeared to have two components. One involved gaining familiarity and apparent understanding of the learning device and the basic requirements of the discrimination task. The second component involved learning potential error factors to be ignored, as well as learning commonalities that carried over from one problem to the next. Among the error factors, evidence of apparent preferences for specific symbols was seen, which had a predictable effect on performances.