More of a (wo)man offline? Gender roles measured in online and offline environments

The increased availability of and access to the Internet has resulted in online psychological assessment becoming an attractive mode of collecting data. However, equivalence between online measures and their offline counterpart cannot be assumed. The aim of the current study was to examine for the first time the online and offline equivalence of a commonly employed measure of gender role orientation: the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) short-form. Participants (N = 372) completed the BSRI short-form either online (n = 244) or offline (n = 128). Equivalence was assessed through reliability measures and mean differences. Reliability analyses indicated good and comparable levels of internal consistency. There was no significant difference between femininity scores depending on mode of administration. However, masculinity scores were significantly higher when the BSRI short-form was administered offline. An additional and unexpected finding was that there was no significant difference between men and women’s masculinity scores. Explanations for the pattern of results seen are considered, including the possible role of social desirability. Future research should further consider conceptualisations of gender in the online environment. Given the findings reported here, it is recommended that researchers collecting gender role data online interpret their findings mindful of possible administration mode effects.     

Trying But Failing: Implicit Attitude Transfer Is Not Eliminated by Overt or Subtle Objectivity Manipulations

People with mental illness experience discrimination, paternalistic treatment, and avoidance. To facilitate assessment of such experiences, the authors developed the Multifaceted Stigma Experiences Scale. It assesses four dimensions of experienced stigma in interpersonal interaction: hostile discrimination, benevolent discrimination, taboo, and denial. The influence of stigma experiences on mental health was modeled in a two-wave panel with persons with mental illness (N = 367, 79% repeated response rate). Results indicate that both subtle and blatant forms of stigma constitute a barrier to recovery and may be interpreted as attempts to increase social distance and reinforce the existing social order.     

Sex differences in theory of mind: A male advantage on Happé's “cartoon” task

It is a commonly held stereotype that women show superior performance on tests of social cognition such as face processing and theory of mind (ToM) compared to men. However, such purported differences have not been empirically tested. In this study 40 healthy men and 40 women matched for age and years of education completed a well-known experimental ToM test requiring the attribution of either physical or mental states (Happé's cartoon task). Men showed superior performance compared to women, with a medium effect size, on both the mental state and physical state cartoons. It is suggested that men may use a cognitive systemising strategy during these tasks. The results emphasise the task-specific nature of sex differences in social cognition and necessitate future work to elucidate individual differences at the interface of cognitive and affective processes.     

Disappointment for others

Two studies examined when and why people experience disappointment for others. Study 1 demonstrated that participants reported disappointment for another's outcome only when the outcome had strong personal implications. Study 2 demonstrated that self-image concerns rather than empathy or resource concerns mediated the experience of disappointment for others. Collectively, these findings suggest that people experience disappointment for others when those outcomes implicate the self-image.     

Exploring the peak and end rule of past affective episodes within the exercise context

ObjectivesThe global affective evaluation (GAE) of an event influences the decision to repeat that event. Two moments are proposed to predict the GAE: the peak and end affect experienced from the event (Fredrickson, 2000). The purposes of this study were to test this peak and end rule in the context of exercise and examine the relationship between GAE and exercise behaviour.Methods41 inactive women (M = 42.7 years, SD = 10.6 years) completed a graded exercise test to determine ventilatory threshold (VT) and 20 min of treadmill exercise at an intensity either at-VT or 10% above-VT. Feeling Scale (FS) was recorded every 2 min during-exercise and 1, 5, 10 and 15 min post-exercise. GAE was measured 5 min, 15 min, 2 and 7 days post-exercise. Exercise intentions and behaviour were measured 7 days post-exercise. The individual's peak and end FS values were entered together as predictor variables in separate regression analyses with GAE from each time point as the dependent variable.ResultsPeak affect and end affect explained between 39 and 58% of the variance in GAE. Greater variance was predicted 5 and 15 min post-exercise compared with 2 and 7 days post-exercise. The independent contribution of the peak and end variables could not be determined due to multi-collinearity problems. No significant relationships existed between affective memory and intentions or behaviour.ConclusionsThe peak and end rule plays some part in predicting the affective memory of an exercise experience but other variables are likely to play a role.     

Psychological Determinants of Optimism Regarding Consequences of the War

Gazing behavior of 10 three-month-old twin infants (five male and five female) and their mothers during play, bottle feeding, and spoon feeding activities were analyzed. Video-tape equipment was used in the home; data were gathered as naturalistically as possible. Mothers looked at infants for a greater percentage of the total time and for longer durations than infants looked at mothers. A consistency-activation personality theory in which mothers are highly motivated to gaze at infants, but infants seek visual interest by looking away from mother, is suggested to interpret the findings. Both looking and not-looking gazes and mean and median measures of central tendency were shown to be helpful and necessary for the gazing analysis.     

Behaving badly: A perspective on mechanisms of dysfunction in psychopathy

Psychopathy is a personality construct defined by lack of empathy, impulsivity, grandiosity, callous and manipulative interpersonal interactions, and the tendency to engage in socially deviant behavior. Psychopathy has been associated with aggression, recidivism, and other behaviors harmful to others. Individuals high in psychopathy have been thought to be notoriously difficult to treat. Many scholars have suggested that considering mechanisms of dysfunction in psychological difficulties will lead to the development of more effective and efficacious treatments. Fearlessness, lack of empathy, and response modulation difficulties have commonly been discussed as mechanisms of dysfunction in psychopathy. The current review provides a brief overview of examinations of these mechanisms of dysfunction in psychopathy, comments on research methodology, and provides suggestions for remedying potential pitfalls.