美方专家观点:未来的挑战——信任是临床试验的核心

信任是医患关系的一个基本特征,是社会和医生之间的隐性合同的一部分。合同要求双方的期望值。病人会告诉医生他们内心深处的个人隐私,信任医生会为他们保守秘密,允许医生在他们生病和悲伤时进入家里和医院。但是,要做到这些,医生必须维持包括关爱、保密和承诺的伦理标准。因为信任就像个很小但却很珍贵的宝石－很难得到,又很容易失去,失去之后想要在找回来极为困难。     

EMU Leadership: An egalitarian magnanimous undemocratic way for schools

This paper suggests that the nature of leadership as a significant human characteristic, derived from both philosophical and psychological theorizing, can appropriately be seen as egalitarian (in Macmurray's sense) and magnanimous (in Aristotle's sense), whilst remaining undemocratic. Empirical research carried out in schools supports the idea that, in particular circumstances, this model of leadership may indeed already be recognized in schools. In addition, there are brief references to the psychology of leadership, to the ways in which learning in schools might be theorized, and to the nature of schools as communities. Finally, implications for 'followers' as well as leaders, and for spiritual development in schools, are explored.     

Food Avoidance Learning in Squirrel Monkeys and Common Marmosets

Using a conditioned food avoidance learning paradigm, six squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and six common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) were tested for their ability to (1) reliably form associations between visual or olfactory cues of a potential food and its palatability and (2) remember such associations over prolonged periods of time. We found (1) that at the group level both species showed one-trial learning with the visual cues color and shape, whereas only the marmosets were able to do so with the olfactory cue, (2) that all individuals from both species learned to reliably avoid the unpalatable food items within 10 trials, (3) a tendency in both species for quicker acquisition of the association with the visual cues compared with the olfactory cue, (4) a tendency for quicker acquisition and higher reliability of the aversion by the marmosets compared with the squirrel monkeys, and (5) that all individuals from both species were able to reliably remember the significance of the visual cues, color and shape, even after 4 months, whereas only the marmosets showed retention of the significance of the olfactory cues for up to 4 weeks. Furthermore, the results suggest that in both species tested, illness is not a necessary prerequisite for food avoidance learning but that the presumably innate rejection responses toward highly concentrated but nontoxic bitter and sour tastants are sufficient to induce robust learning and retention.     

Obsessive ruminations : a controlled trial of thought-stopping technique

Thought-stopping treatment for obsessive ruminations was described by Wolpe and Lazarus (1966) and more recently there have been several case-reports in some of which components of the method were unsystematically varied (Stern, 1970; Kumar et al., 1971; Yamagami, 1971). The present study examined one of these variables while holding constant the other components. When thought-stopping is given, the subject is usually relaxed (using a standard set of instructions to relax his muscles) and then asked to ruminate about the obsessive thought. The therapist then shouts ‘Stop’ while making a sudden noise at the same time. At this point the patient is told that he must stop thinking his obsessive idea ; after a pause, this interruption is repeated several times until the obsessional rumination ceases. This procedure was compared to a similar technique in which the patient imagined a neutral (‘control’) thought instead of an obsessive one prior to the onset of the ‘stop’ instruction. In every other way the two procedures were identical.     

A Test by Any Other Name: P Values,Bayes Factors,and Statistical Inference

Procedures used for statistical inference are receiving increased scrutiny as the scientific community studies the factors associated with insuring reproducible research. This note addresses recent negative attention directed at p values, the relationship of confidence intervals and tests, and the role of Bayesian inference and Bayes factors, with an eye toward better understanding these different strategies for statistical inference. We argue that researchers and data analysts too often resort to binary decisions (e.g., whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis) in settings where this may not be required.     

Speaking two languages with different number naming systems: What implications for magnitude judgments in bilinguals at different stages of language acquisition?

Differences between languages in terms of number naming systems may lead to performance differences in number processing. The current study focused on differences concerning the order of decades and units in two-digit number words (i.e., unit-decade order in German but decade-unit order in French) and how they affect number magnitude judgments. Participants performed basic numerical tasks, namely two-digit number magnitude judgments, and we used the compatibility effect (Nuerk et al. in Cognition 82(1):B25–B33, 2001) as a hallmark of language influence on numbers. In the first part we aimed to understand the influence of language on compatibility effects in adults coming from German or French monolingual and German–French bilingual groups (Experiment 1). The second part examined how this language influence develops at different stages of language acquisition in individuals with increasing bilingual proficiency (Experiment 2). Language systematically influenced magnitude judgments such that: (a) The spoken language(s) modulated magnitude judgments presented as Arabic digits, and (b) bilinguals’ progressive language mastery impacted magnitude judgments presented as number words. Taken together, the current results suggest that the order of decades and units in verbal numbers may qualitatively influence magnitude judgments in bilinguals and monolinguals, providing new insights into how number processing can be influenced by language(s).     

Trait anxiety, defensiveness and selective processing of threat: an investigation using two measures of attentional bias

Attentional biases for threat were examined in a non-clinical sample (N=60), with each participant tested on both the modified Stroop colour-naming and dot probe tasks. Three groups were selected on the basis of trait anxiety and social desirability scale (SDS) scores: “low anxiety” (LA: low trait, low SDS), “repressor” (REP: low trait, high SDS) and “high anxiety” (HA: high trait, low SDS). Results from the colour-naming task suggested that high levels of defensiveness (in combination with low trait anxiety) were associated with greater avoidance of threat. The REP group showed less interference in colour-naming threat than neutral words; whereas the HA group showed increased interference due to threat words. On the dot probe task, there was a general tendency for this non-clinical sample as a whole to show avoidance of social threat relative to neutral words, but there was no bias for physical threat words. Avoidance of social threat was significant only within the REP group. No relationships were found between the measures of cognitive bias from the two tasks, suggesting different underlying mechanisms. Results are discussed in relation to previous findings and theoretical views of the effects of anxiety and defensiveness on the processing of threat.     

The prematurity stereotype revisited: Impact on mothers' interactions with premature and full‐term infants

Research exploring the effects of labeling on maternal perceptions and behaviors was extended by simultaneously examining the cognitive and behavioral effects of prematurity stereotyping with both mothers of full‐term and premature infants, and by examining the effects of an information‐based intervention on the stereotyped responses of mothers of premature infants. An experimental design wherein mothers of both full‐term and premature infants were randomly assigned to interact with, and then rate, either a full‐term or premature infant who was described as either full‐term or premature was employed to test several hypotheses. Two hypotheses related to prematurity stereotyping received support: mothers showed more positive responses to infants labeled full‐term than to infants labeled premature, and mothers of full‐term infants exhibited more prematurity stereotyping than did mothers of premature infants. The hypothesis concerning gender effects also was supported, with mothers showing more positive responses to male infants than to female infants. In contrast to expectations, a brief cognitive intervention provided to some mothers of premature infants failed to reduce stereotyping, and, indeed, appeared to increase stereotyping. These results are compared with the results of previous studies, most of which did not include actual interactions between mothers and infants, and the implications of these results are considered. © 2000 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.