Development and Validation of the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale: Measuring Effective Parenting Strategies

The current study aimed to develop and evaluate a measure of parenting knowledge, the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale (KOPSS); specifically, to establish the scales internal reliability, ensure a clinically appropriate length, provide a community sample for future comparison, demonstrate adequate test–retest reliability and convergent validity, and to compare the scale to dysfunctional discipline styles. A total of n?=?865 parents were involved in the development and evaluation of the scale. In Study 1, data was collected from n?=?229 parents and Rasch analyses revealed seven items did not fit the measurement model. Study 2 involved a further sample of community families (n?=?346) and revealed the scale could be further shortened to 16 items. Study 3 revealed the scale has good test–retest reliability over a one-week period (r?=?.88, p?<?.001). Study 4 demonstrated convergent validity through a comparison to the Knowledge of Effective Parenting Scale (r?=?.583, p?=?.009). Study 5 utilised a sample of community families (n?=?190), revealing the scale was negatively correlated with hostile and lax discipline (r?=??.29, p?<?.001; r?=??.15, p?<?.05). Lastly, Study 6 showed scores on the KOPSS significantly improved following clinic-based and Internet-based Behavioural Parent Training. The KOPSS was found to be a valid and reliable measure of parenting knowledge of effective parenting strategies, which can be used to evaluate knowledge acquisition in parenting programs, and test the role of knowledge in behaviour change.     

Childhood Maltreatment and its Effect on Parenting among High-Risk Parents

Research evidence indicates that a childhood history of maltreatment affects parental behaviors in adulthood. The aim of the study was to investigate the predictors for parental behaviors among individuals who reported a history of maltreatment. The current study investigated whether attachment styles, emotional regulation and cognitive appraisals of parenting predicted parental behaviors (positive vs. negative). The study also investigated the differential effects of abuse experiences in childhood (physical, sexual, emotional, and neglect) on parental behaviors. The participants were 213 high-risk Jewish and Arab parents of children aged six and under. Participants completed five self-report questionnaires assessing parental behaviors, childhood experiences of abuse and neglect, attachment styles, emotional regulation, and cognitive appraisal of parenthood. The regression analyses revealed that personal attributes such as ethnicity, childhood experience of emotional abuse/neglect, emotional regulation, and appraisal of parenting, predict negative parental behavior. Anxious attachment and childhood emotional abuse and neglect moderated the impact of parenthood appraisal on parenting behaviors. Although physical and sexual abuse had the highest impact on insecure attachment, emotional abuse/neglect had higher predictive power for non-positive parenting. Clinical interventions for improving the capacity for emotional regulation and parent-child relational skills are suggested.     

Repressive Adaptive Style Across Ethnicities

There may be significant differences in coping styles across ethnicities. Previous research has suggested disparities in the number of individuals who utilize repressive adaptive coping style among cultural groups. Repressive adaptive style is a coping mechanism in which individuals report low distress levels while they actually experience high levels of stress. Developing an enhanced understanding of the prevalence of the utilization of repressive adaptive style in different ethnic groups is important for informing intervention techniques to better account for the cultural influences on mental health. The present study investigated the utilization of repressive adaptive style across American Indian (n?=?31), African American (n?=?53), and European American (n?=?48) children in the Midwest. The age range of the children was 10 to 13 years and 50.8% were male. Dependent measures included the Children’s Social Desirability Scale and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Results indicated significant differences in reports of anxiety between ethnic groups. Additionally, it was discovered that African American and European American children utilized repressive adaptive style more than American Indian children, albeit not significantly. Because of the high rates of suicide and emotional distress believed to be experienced by American Indian children this result is interesting. Continued research investigating protective factors, such as high levels of cultural identity and connectedness, is warranted.     

The Role of Self-Efficacy in Explaining Psychological and Financial Preparation for Retirement: A Behavioural Study of Retirement Transitioning in Uganda

The individual’s level of perceived self-efficacy could be an important driver for early retirement preparation. Most employees in Ugandan organisations reach that age of retirement without sufficient knowledge on how they will survive during their post-retirement life. This study sought to examine whether self-efficacy predicts psychological preparation and financial preparation for retirement. The sample of 924 employees aged 24–60 years selected voluntarily from four three service-oriented organisations participated in this study. Confirmatory factor analysis was run to confirm whether the factor indices (latent variables) extracted from exploratory factor analysis were actually measures of psychological preparation and financial preparation for retirement. Structural equation modelling was used to test regression relationships, and correlation between latent variable of the dependent constructs was tested using Pearson product moment correlation coefficients. The findings indicated a four-factor model for psychological preparation and a two-factor model for financial preparation. Self-efficacy predicted only three factors of psychological preparation and finance management mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and personal initiative. With these findings, it was concluded that individuals with capacity to adapt new changes can easily re-engage in other jobs. Similarly, those concerned with their social identity will focus on developing career skills that would yield the same level of importance in society. However, finance management training is crucial to the development of strategies and competences that empower people to maintain satisfying lifestyles after retirement. Finally, self-efficacy is a driving factor of personal initiative but the relationship is reinforced when finance management competences are acquired.     

The Role of Ethnic Socialization,Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem: Implications for Bi-ethnic Adolescents’ School Adjustment

Bi-ethnic adolescents of marriage migrant mothers in Korea are often encouraged to be “pure” Koreans for their adjustments and not given the opportunities to explore their ethnic identity or to learn about their mother’s culture of origin. Existing studies conducted with mono-ethnic minorities in other countries, however, do not support this belief. We tested a conceptual model on the role of ethnic socialization, ethnic identity and self-esteem on school adjustment among bi-ethnic adolescents in Korea based on social identity theory and theoretical models of ethnic socialization and ethnic identity. We used data from 2015 National Survey of Multicultural Families. The study sample consisted of 296 adolescents aged 9–18 who were born between Korean fathers and Vietnamese marriage migrant mothers. We used structural equation modeling to specifically examine the association between ethnic socialization in terms of parents’ linguistic socialization and adolescents’ school adjustment mediated by ethnic identity in the form of ethnic regard and self-esteem among bi-ethnic adolescents. The results verified the hypothesized model, showing positive relationships between linguistic socialization and ethnic regard, ethnic regard and self-esteem, self-esteem and school adjustment, and ethnic regard and school adjustment. Additionally, the results of bootstrapping test showed that the indirect effect of linguistic socialization on self-esteem through ethnic regard was significant. The indirect effect of ethnic regard on school adjustment through self-esteem was significant and the indirect effect of linguistic socialization on school adjustment via ethnic regard and self-esteem was also significant. These results shed light on the important role of ethnic identity fostered at home among bi-ethnic adolescents of marriage migrant mothers in Korea.     

Family Allocentrism and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Self-Identity Style

Recent research has found that a strong family allocentrism relates to reduced adolescent depressive symptoms. Besides providing continuous support for this relation, this research extended the scope by exploring whether there was a U-shaped association between family allocentrism and depressive symptoms and testing the mediation effect of identity style among Italian adolescents (N?=?387, 183 boys, 204 girls, M_age?=?16.38 years). Result of hierarchical regression model showed that the association between family allocentrism and depressive symptoms was linear rather than U-shaped. More importantly, this linear relation was mediated by normative and diffuse-avoidant style. In sum, the current findings suggest that adolescents who are allocentric toward family tend to follow family members’ expectations to establish self-identity and deal with identity issues more proactively, and thus they are less likely to experience depressive symptoms. Moreover, there is no significant evidence that too much family allocentrism would lead to elevated depressive symptoms.     

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Father Engagement Questionnaire

While there has been increasing interest in promoting father engagement in parenting interventions for child wellbeing, both research and practice endeavors have been hindered by a lack of a measure of father engagement practices. This paper reports the development and evaluation of a comprehensive, practitioner-report measure of father engagement practices–—the Father Engagement Questionnaire (FEQ). Practitioners (N?=?589; 84.5% females; mean age?=?38.56) involved in delivering parenting interventions in Australia completed the FEQ, along with background demographics and questions regarding their own and organization’s practice. A separate sample of 28 practitioners completed the FEQ twice, with a two-week interim, to assess test–retest stability of the measure. Exploratory factor analysis revealed five factors corresponding to the measure’s five intended content areas: Confidence in Working with Fathers, Competence in Using Engagement Strategies, Perceived Effectiveness of Engagement Strategies, Frequency of Strategy Use, and Organizational Practices for Father Engagement. Each of these scales demonstrated adequate internal consistency reliability and test–retest stability. As the five scales appear to be related but distinct, it is recommended that the FEQ is used as a multidimensional measure of father engagement. In terms of predictive validity, higher scores on the Confidence in Working with Fathers, Frequency of Strategy Use, and Organizational Practices for Father Engagement scales were associated with a higher likelihood of practitioner-reported father attendance. The results provide support for adequate psychometric properties of the FEQ as a research and clinical tool for assessing and monitoring father engagement practices.     

Lonely Adolescents and Their Best Friend: An Examination of Loneliness and Friendship Quality in Best Friendship Dyads

Friendship experiences have been shown to be important predictors of adolescents’ loneliness. The current study examined selection and socialization effects of loneliness within reciprocal best friendships, while controlling for friendship quality. Analyses were conducted on a sample of 884 adolescents (42.08% boys), making up 442 dyads, who were on average 13.51 years old (SD?=?1.37). Adolescents completed the peer-related loneliness subscale of the Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents as well as the Friendship Qualities Scale. A longitudinal actor-partner interdependence model, which accounts for the interdependencies in the data of best friends, suggested the presence of a selection effect for loneliness but no socialization effect. This finding within best friendships contrasts with studies on friendship networks where both selection and socialization were established.     

Veterans’ Offspring’s Personality Traits and the Intergenerational Transmission of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms

Following war and war captivity, many combat veterans and former prisoners of war (ex-POWs) may suffer from posttraumatic psychopathologies, and these may be transmitted to their offspring. Though there are considerable individual differences between offspring in this respect, the mechanisms underlying such differences remain unclear. The current longitudinal study examined the role that veterans’ offspring’s Big Five personality traits may play within this intergenerational transmission. One hundred and twenty-three dyads consisting of veterans (79 ex-POWs and 44 combat veterans) and their adult offspring were examined. Fathers’ posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and global psychiatric distress (GD) were assessed 30 and 35 years after the war, and offspring’s PTSS, GD, and Big Five personality traits were assessed 40 years after the war. Findings indicate that veterans’ psychopathologies were associated with those of their offspring. Furthermore, analyses revealed significant positive associations between offspring’s psychopathologies and their Neuroticism, and negative associations with their Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Finally, a mediation effect was found wherein the fathers’ PTSS and GD were related to their offspring’s Neuroticism levels, and the offspring’s Neuroticism was related to their PTSS and GD levels. These findings suggest that offspring’s personality traits may indeed play a role in the transmission of posttraumatic psychopathologies from veterans to their offspring, and may explain individual differences in this respect. Specifically, high levels of Neuroticism may place offspring at risk for secondary traumatization. Possible explanations and limitations are discussed, and future research directions are suggested.