How much observational data is enough? An empirical test using marital interaction coding

Using three different samples of couples (clinic, nondistressed community, and engaged), we found that 15 minutes was sufficient to witness enough behavior to make reliable (i.e., internally consistent) estimations of most Rapid Marital Interaction Coding System (Heyman & Vivian, 1993) code frequencies. Ten minutes is sufficient for many codes of interest. The ease in which "how much time is necessary" calculations can be made should entice behavioral investigators from a variety of content areas to publish such figures. By empirically investigating a factor that in most fields becomes reified through convention, investigators can conduct observational research that is both maximally efficient and maximally scientifically defensible.     

Test anxiety, coping strategies, and perceived health in a group of high school students: a Turkish sample

A group of high school juniors and a group of high school seniors in Izmir, Turkey completed measures of test anxiety, coping skills, and perceived health status both before and after a major exam period. Students with high test anxiety used less effective coping mechanisms and tended to have poorer perceptions of their health. Prior to the exams, juniors displayed higher test anxiety and used less effective coping mechanisms than seniors. After the exam periods, improvements were seen for both age groups on perceived health, but scores of younger students remained significantly higher than scores of seniors on one of the key measures of test anxiety. Results of the study lend support to those of previous studies done in other cultural contexts, and findings have implications for the development of interventions designed to help students cope with stress.     

The limitations of orthographic analogy in early reading development: performance on the clue-word task depends on phonological priming and elementary decoding skill, not the use of orthographic analogy

Two experiments investigated the mechanisms underlying analogical transfer in the clue-word reading task developed by Goswami and her colleagues. Across both experiments, an equivalent number of "analogy" responses were made regardless of whether the clue word was seen or just heard. In addition, the number of "analogy" responses to words sharing both orthographic and phonological overlap with the clue words was no greater than that shown to words sharing only pronunciations. These results provide no evidence for the view that beginning readers make genuine orthographic-based analogies. Instead, the findings are interpreted within a framework in which phonological priming, in combination with the children's own partial decoding attempts based on limited orthographic knowledge, account for their performance on the clue-word task. It is concluded that the extent to which beginning readers make orthographic analogies is overestimated and as a consequence, theories that emphasize the importance of orthographic analogy as a mechanism driving the development of early reading skills need to be questioned.     

Neuroticism and social comparison orientation as moderators of affective responses to social comparison at work

In a study among 72 nurses, the affective consequences of social comparison were examined and related to neuroticism (N) and to social comparison orientation (SCO). Participants were confronted with a bogus interview with an upward versus a downward comparison target. Positive affect and identification were higher, and negative affect was lower, in the upward than in the downward comparison condition. Independent of their SCO, the higher individuals were in N, the less they identified with the upward comparison target, the more they identified with the downward comparison target, and the less positive affect they showed following confrontation with the upward comparison target. In contrast, independent of their level of N, the higher individuals were in SCO, the more negative affect they showed following confrontation with the downward comparison target. The effects on negative affect stayed the same when controlling for positive affect, and the effects on positive affect stayed the same when controlling for negative affect. These effects were also obtained when perceived direction was used as a predictor instead of the experimentally manipulated direction. It is concluded that, although N and SCO are correlated, these variables seem to have independent and distinct effects upon the responses to social comparison information.     

The contributions of memory and attention processes to cognitive abilities

In two experiments, the contributions of memory and attention processes to the cognitive abilities of reasoning and perceptual speed were investigated. Two measures of speed of information retrieval from long-term and short-term memory (Posner paradigm, Sternberg paradigm) and two attention measures (continuous attention test, attention switching test) were included in the first experiment (N = 220). The memory tests led to correlations with the measures of cognitive abilities, whereas the attention test did not. The same tests as well as one additional memory test and one attention test (working memory test, test of covert orientation) were administered in the second experiment (N = 116). Again, the memory tests led to the larger correlations with the measures of cognitive abilities. Two components were obtained in components analysis, of which the first was characterized by high loadings of the memory tests and the second by high loadings of the attention tests. Only the memory component contributed to the prediction of cognitive abilities.     

Contextual connections to puns in fables: perceived humor

Adding material that provided an associative connection to a pun enhances perceived humor, as shown in a previous series of studies. Because those results had been based on one-sentence statements that may have relied, in part, on brevity for humor, the purpose of the present study was to evaluate reactions to context and puns (mostly spoonerisms) with more lengthy material to add generality to those findings. Three within-subject studies were conducted in which short fables were manipulated systematically such that the final sentence was or was not a pun and contextual information pertaining to both meanings of the pun was or was not present in the body of the stories. Results showed that the pun itself was a powerful contributor to perceived humor and cleverness and that contextual information amplified those perceptions. Arousal, surprise, and detection of appropriate incongruity are discussed.     

Validation of the Japanese version of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory in a large community sample

The NEO Five-Factor Inventory is the shortened version of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. The aim of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the shortened version in the general population of Japan. This version was translated into Japanese and then administered to 2,051 adults in a rural town in Akita Prefecture. A total of 1,664 (81.1%) individuals gave valid answers. Internal reliability, assessed by Cronbach alpha for subscales, ranged from .60 to .77. The scales were only weakly correlated both with each other and with age. In a multiple regression analysis, only the Neuroticism scale score was a significant predictor of scores on the General Health Questionnaire. Factor analysis supported the theoretical structure of personality. Overall, the Japanese version showed good reliability and validity in this sample of the general population of Japan.     

Components of type A behavior and two-year prognosis of patients with acute coronary syndrome

We investigated prospectively the relationship of Type A behavior and its subcomponents with cardiac mortality and recurrent nonfatal cardiac events in a 2-yr. follow-up of 90 patients [69 men and 21 women, M age=56.4 yr., SD=8.4] after acute coronary syndrome. Type A behavior was assessed via the general Bortner Type A Index. Each patient completed the Bortner's scale before hospital discharge. During the first 2-yr. follow-up, there were 14 cardiac deaths among patients with myocardial infarction. 8 patients had recurrent cardiac events and were hospitalized, and 19 patients had an effort-induced angina pectoris. Patients with acute myocardial infarction who died during follow-up had a significantly lower Bortner score than patients with a secondary cardiac event. Bortner scores of patients with acute myocardial infarction who died indicated Type B behavioral patterns. Mortality was significantly higher in the patients classified as showing Type B (21.8%) behavior than in the patients classified as showing Type A (12.0%) behavior. Patients with a secondary cardiac event had more common Type A behavior patterns and higher Bortner scores than patients without a secondary cardiac event. The items on Bortner's scale "very competitive, ever rushed, tries to do too many things at once, fast in daily activities and expresses feelings" were inversely associated with cardiac deaths. These findings suggest that patients with acute coronary syndrome classified by scores on the Bortner scale as Type B behavior have a greater probability of death, and patients classified on the Bortner scale as Type A behavior have a greater probability of secondary cardiac events during follow-up. This finding may have implications for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome. The inferior survival of patients with Type B personalities argues against attempts to modify Type A behavior in postinfarction patients.     

Core conflictual relationship themes of men and women who are violent toward their partners

The Core Conflictual Relationship Themes of men and women violent toward their partners and entering psychotherapy, students violent toward their partners, and nonviolent students (n = 84; n = 14 in each of the six groups) were compared. Men and women entering psychotherapy more often had negative Wish elements than others. The wish element was "to be loved" for 11 of the 14 student women violent toward their partners and 5 of the 14 nonviolent student women.