Relative spatial expansion and contraction within the Müller-Lyer and Judd illusions

The shaft portions of Müller-Lyer (M-L) figures, one-ended M-L figures, Judd figures, and their respective control (tails-up) figures were divided by subjects into eight equal-appearing intervals by means of successive bisections. For most of the control stimuli the length of the left half of the shaft tended to be overestimated relative to the length of the right side. For the tails-out version of the M-L figure, there was relative overestimation of segments of the shaft adjacent to the tails, while for the tails-in version there was relative underestimation of these segments. These results indicate that the distortion of perceived length in the M-L illusion is not distributed evenly along the shaft. For the one-ended M-L figures the apparent overestimations and underestimations extended further along the shaft than for the standard figures. For the Judd figure perceived length varied systematically along the length of the shaft from underestimation near the tails-in end of the figure to overestimation near the tails-out end. These results are contradictory to the hypothesis that the M-L illusion results from inappropriate size scaling produced through the operation of size-constancy mechanisms, since this conjecture would predict uniform expansion or contraction. The results are compared with findings that localization responses are accurate for M-L figures but biased for one-ended M-L figures and Judd figures.     

Response persistence under ratio and interval reinforcement schedules

In Experiment 1, rats were exposed to progressive-ratio schedules of food reinforcement while other rats were exposed simultaneously to yoked-interval schedules that arranged equivalent interreinforcer intervals but required only a single response at the end of the interval for food delivery. In Experiment 2, a within-subject yoked-control procedure was employed in which pigeons were exposed to alternating sessions (one per day) of progressive-ratio schedules and yoked-interval schedules as described above. In both experiments, responding under the yoked-interval schedule persisted beyond the point at which responding under the progressive-ratio schedule had ceased. The progressive-ratio schedules controlled break-and-run distributions, and the yoked-interval schedules controlled more even distributions of responses in time. Response rates decreased and postreinforcement pauses increased over time within individual sessions under both schedules. The results suggest that responding maintained by interval schedules is more persistent than that maintained by ratio schedules. The limitations and implications of this conclusion are discussed in the context of other investigations of response strength and behavioral momentum.     

《共产党宣言》,欧洲与无产阶级政党

1848年问世的《共产党宣言》,是马克思和恩格斯参加的共产主义者同盟的纲领。毫无疑问,《宣言》是欧洲的,因为它在伦敦印刷,是由两个德国撰稿人完成的,这两个人在布鲁塞尔邂逅而且都加入了主要由德国人组成的、总部设在巴黎(后移至伦敦)的一个组织。可能正是由于警察的镇压,共产主义的幽灵才在欧洲徘徊。面对资本主义的世界化,革命者已经在反对资产阶级国际主义的实践,马克思和恩格斯于1843年夏天在巴黎相遇,而恩格斯曾谈到自这次相遇以来,他们已经有了一个理论的完整协议,他们第二次相遇在1844年春天,于布鲁塞尔,而恩格斯断言说,在那时,马克思“已经完全确立了他的历史唯物主义的学说”。     

维特根斯坦与心理主义的终结

我从一个顿号开始。这个逗号位于维特根斯坦《逻辑哲学论》里一个关键的命题中。对由这个顿号分开的词之间关系的解释,是最初的问题,后面的篇章把这个问题作为目标,加以阐明、研究并试图解决之。被这个顿号联系起来并隔开的词,指出了一些重要的概念,它们不仅可以在维特根斯坦的《逻辑哲学论》和他思想发展变化中找到,并且可以在总的哲学传统中找到。事实上,我们可以把这些概念看作关于语言、思想和实在三者关系的哲学问题的隐喻和线索。     

休谟关于“因果关系”的两个定义

鲁宾逊在最近哲学季刊上的一篇文章中认为，在休漠《人性论》一书中关于因果关系的两种定义并不是定义，而是一种根据经验的心理学论述即已经被确定的内容的定义。他的这个命题我不能接受，尽管他的那些次要的论题即（a）详细阐明了休漠所谓的“哲学关系”和“自然关系”，（）与史密斯相反，休漠支持因果关系的“统一性”观点确实是合理的。因此我希望（I）能够解释为什么鲁宾逊的主要命题不能真正说明休漠的两个因果关系定义，（巨）并证明他的结论并不是来自他自己的论述（巨）试图解释体漠关于“因果关系”的两个定义，这可以较真实地…     

增补的危险性

我们让人反复理解这一点:对生动话语的称赞忠诚于卢梭思想中的一个主题,这个主题和它的对立面结合并组织起来:对所谓完满话语始终越发怀疑。讲话过程中,在场获得承认的同时亦遭到拒绝。卢梭提出话语高于书写的谈话应该是,或本该是明明白白的。我们必须注意这种方式,注意在生动的谈话中把我们与在场联系起来的时刻。实际上,卢梭体会到直接的话语奇迹和话语本身内所隐蔽的东西,以无可比拟的敏锐性承认并分析了这个遮盖物,我们尝试通过语言的表示抓住所渴望的在场,但我们失掉了它。斯塔罗宾斯基在《活的眼睛》中     

论四种内在价值

价值论作为一门普遍的科学,它最基本的问题是理解内在价值的本质。这是它的核心问题。它的问题的关键就在于此。它的一些其他问题都与此相关,是其所产生、所结果、所包含,它的核心问题、它的结论就在于此。 一、有四种相区别的内在价值。它们如何相互依存、相互补充、相互交融,我将在稍后讨论。我的第一个任务是划清它们的区别,表明这四种中的每一个如何是基本的,通常是排他的,而且每一个都宣称是终极的。这些理论是相当著名的,尽管赞同其中一种的人们倾向于忽略和否认其他种。我使用了与它们的专门历史相关的名字,其中有的在知名度上略逊一筹。     

关于俄国哲学中的“俄国思想”

1993年3月在莫斯科召开了一次俄国哲学国际会议。大会是由克林顿领导的美国跨国研究所和俄罗斯科学院哲学所共同组织的。参加会议的有来自俄、美、英、法、德、意等国的著名俄国哲学史专家。本刊选译了俄《哲学问题》杂志1994年第1期上发表的部分会议材料:M.H.格罗莫夫的《俄国文化的永恒价值》,Ⅱ)K.斯坎兰的《俄国需要俄国哲学吗?》和A.瓦利茨基的《关于俄国哲学中的“俄国思想”》。 这组文章由贾泽林协助本刊选题。     

Coding strategies,perceptual grouping,and the “variability effect” in free recall

Three experiments examined the effects of constant vs. varied input of letter strings on recall, and then examined the effects of such training in the learning of new lists of letter strings. Letter strings were constructed from pairs of trigrams spatially grouped, and were presented either consistently or with different spatial groupings on successive presentations. In Experiments I and II, varied input produced substantially greater recall than constant input. When transferred to a new list of letter strings, containing either the same general structure or a new scrambled structure, recall of the second list was determined primarily by conditions of first-list input, and unaffected by second-list structure. Although the "variability effect" did not appear in the training phase of Experiment III, Varied input led subjects to regroup or integrate the letter sequences more frequently and produced similar transfer effects as in Experiments I and II.