More on concurrent interval-ratio schedules: a replication and review.

It has been suggested that the failure to maximize reinforcement on concurrent variable-interval, variable-ratio schedules may be misleading. Inasmuch as response costs are not directly measured, it is possible that subjects are optimally balancing the benefits of reinforcement against the costs of responding. To evaluate this hypothesis, pigeons were tested in a procedure in which interval and ratio schedules had equal response costs. On a concurrent variable time (VT), variable ratio-time (VRT) schedule, the VT schedule runs throughout the session and the VRT schedule is controlled by responses to a changeover key that switches from one schedule to the other. Reinforcement is presented independent of response. This schedule retains the essential features of concurrent VI VR, but eliminates differential response costs for the two alternatives. It therefore also eliminates at least one significant ambiguity about the reinforcement maximizing performance. Pigeons did not maximize rate of reinforcement on this procedure. Instead, their times spent on the alternative schedules matched the relative rates of reinforcement, even when schedule parameters were such that matching earned the lowest possible overall rate of reinforcement. It was further shown that the observed matching was not a procedural artifact arising from the constraints built into the schedule.     

Electromyographic activity over facial muscle regions can differentiate the valence and intensity of affective reactions

Physiological measures have traditionally been viewed in social psychology as useful only in assessing general arousal and therefore as incapable of distinguishing between positive and negative affective states. This view is challenged in the present report. Sixteen subjects in a pilot study were exposed briefly to slides and tones that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity differentiated both the valence and intensity of the affective reaction. Moreover, independent judges were unable to determine from viewing videotapes of the subjects' facial displays whether a positive or negative stimulus had been presented or whether a mildly or moderately intense stimulus had been presented. In the full experiment, 28 subjects briefly viewed slides of scenes that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Again, EMG activity over the brow (corrugator supercilia), eye (orbicularis oculi), and cheek (zygomatic major) muscle regions differentiated the pleasantness and intensity of individuals' affective reactions to the visual stimuli even though visual inspection of the videotapes again indicated that expressions of emotion were not apparent. These results suggest that gradients of EMG activity over the muscles of facial expression can provide objective and continuous probes of affective processes that are too subtle or fleeting to evoke expressions observable under normal conditions of social interaction.     

The circumplexity of Leary's Interpersonal Circle: a multidimensional scaling perspective

To investigate the circulant structure of the 16 scales comprising the Interpersonal Checklist (ICL; Laforge & Suczek, 1955), intercorrelation matrices for mate and female undergraduate ICL scores were subjected to multidimentional scaling analysis. Results showed the following: (a) while the 16 ICL scales fall in a rough circular array, measurement gaps exist in the friendly-dominant and hostile-submissive quadrants; (b) sixteenths A-B-P and L-M-N were misarranged; (c) stress coefficients for a three-dimensional solution were in an acceptable range. Implications of these findings for future research and anchoring of the ICL to Kiesler's (1983) "1982 Interpersonal Circle" are discussed.     

Eye movements and the perceptual span in beginning and skilled readers

Four experiments are reported which examined the size of the perceptual span in second-, fourth-, and sixth-grade children, as well as adult skilled readers. The results indicated that the perceptual span in beginning readers is slightly smaller than the perceptual span of skilled readers. Using a moving window technique, it was found that the perceptual span of beginning readers extends about 11 character spaces to the right of fixation; for skilled readers, the span extends 14-15 spaces to the right of fixation. Beginning readers apparently devote more of their processing to the foveally fixated word than more proficient readers, but their perceptual span appears to be asymmetric to the right of fixation as is the case for skilled readers. The results of the experiments also indicated that the size of the perceptual span is variable and can be influenced by the difficulty of the text. It is concluded that the size of the perceptual span does not cause beginning readers' slow reading rates.     

Type A behavior pattern and the judgment of control

We investigated the control judgments of Type A and B actors and observers after five tasks in which actual response-outcome contingency and success were varied systematically. Results indicated that, overall, actors provided higher control judgments than did observers, and both actual contingency and success influenced judged control. Type A and B actors did not differ in their self-perceptions of control but observers judged the Type A actors to have exerted more control than the Type B actors, primarily on positive contingency tasks. These findings suggest that Type As, because of their more active, dynamic style, may be credited by observers with more control or competence than is warranted. By contrast, the more relaxed style of the Type B may lead to lower than warranted evaluations of control or competence. Lastly, Type As were found to learn the contingencies better than Type Bs with important implications for the actual exercise of control.     

Attitude accessibility as a moderator of the attitude-perception and attitude-behavior relations: an investigation of the 1984 presidential election

It was hypothesized that the extent to which individuals' attitudes guide their subsequent perceptions of and behavior toward the attitude object is a function of the accessibility of those attitudes from memory. A field investigation concerning the 1984 presidential election was conducted as a test of these hypotheses. Attitudes toward each of the two candidates, Reagan and Mondale, and the accessibility of those attitudes, as indicated by the latency of response to the attitudinal inquiry, were measured for a large sample of townspeople months before the election. Judgments of the performance of the candidates during the televised debates served as the measure of subsequent perceptions, and voting served as the measure of subsequent behavior. As predicted, both the attitude-perception and the attitude-behavior relations were moderated by attitude accessibility. The implications of these findings for theoretical models of the processes by which attitudes guide behavior, along with their practical implications for survey research, are discussed.     

Altruism and aggression: the heritability of individual differences

Five questionnaires measuring altruistic and aggressive tendencies were completed by 573 adult twin pairs of both sexes from the University of London Institute of Psychiatry Volunteer Twin Register. The questionnaires measured altruism, empathy, nurturance, aggressiveness, and assertiveness. The intraclass correlations for the five scales, respectively, were .53, .54, .49, .40, and .52 for 296 monozygotic pairs, and .25, .20, .14, .04, and .20 for 179 same-sex dizygotic pairs, resulting in broad heritability estimates of 56%, 68%, 70%, 72%, and 64%. Additional analyses, using maximum-likelihood model-fitting, revealed approximately 50% of the variance on each scale to be associated with genetic effects, virtually 0% with the twins' common environment, and the remaining 50% with each twins' specific environment and/or error associated with the test. Correcting for the unreliability in the tests raised the maximum-likelihood heritabilities to approximately 60%. Age and sex differences were also found: altruism increased over the age span from 19 to 60, whereas aggressiveness decreased, and, at each age, women had higher scores than men on altruism and lower scores on aggressiveness.     

Deprivation in the early mother-daughter relationship: A factor in the development of the narcissistic personality

Depriving mother-child relationships at an early age lay the foundation for narcissistic disturbances. Here, the specific focus is on mother-daughter relationships and the lack of appropriate maternal recognition and admiration of the infant. The particular treatment modality combines individual psychotherapy with a female therapist and group therapy in an all-women's group. The transferential phenomena to the various women found in this treatment situation are instrumental in helping the female patient achieve a significant change in her narcissistic personality.     

Familiarity, group exposure, and risk-taking behavior in gambling

This research studied the effect of familiarity and individual versus group participation on risk-taking behavior in gambling (American roulette). Thirty-eight subjects (21 men and 17 women) were randomly selected and assigned to two experimental groups that gambled either individually or in groups. Results revealed that players bet more heavily as they became more familiar with the game, whether playing alone or in groups.