Validity of post-proline splitting dipeptidyl aminopeptidase activities in the cerebrospinal fluid for neurologic and psychiatric diagnosis

The dipeptidyl-peptidase activity of 650 liquores cerebrospinalis was obtained by means of the substrate Gly-Pro-NHNp (Gly-Pro-4-nitroanilid) at pHs of 5.5 and 7.4. In comparison with a reference collective, the suitability of the method as a supplementary liquor parameter in neurological psychiatric diagnosis was examined. The introduction of the measurement at pH 7.4 can be particularly recommended for the distinguishing of bacterial and nonbacterial meningitis.     

Foundations of a new system of probability theory

The aim of my book is to explain the content of the different notions of probability.Based on a concept of logical probability, which is modified as compared with Carnap, we succeed by means of the mathematical results of de Finetti in defining the concept of statistical probability.The starting point is the fundamental concept that certain phenomena are of the same kind, that certain occurrences can be repeated, that certain experiments are identical. We introduce for this idea the notion: concept K of similarity. From concept K of similarity we derive logically some probability-theoretic conclusions:If the events E() are similar —of the same kind - on the basis of such a concept K, it holds good that intersections of n of these events are equiprobable on the basis of K; in formulae: E(₁)...E( _{n K} E('₁)...E(' _n , _{i j} ,' _j ' _j for ij On the basis of some further axioms a partial comparative probability structure results from K, which forms the starting point of our further investigations and which we call logical probability on the basis of K.We investigate a metrisation of this partial comparative structure, i.e. normed -additive functions m _K, which are compatible with this structure; we call these functions m _K measure-functions in relation to K.The measure-functions may be interpreted as subjective probabilities of individuals, who accept the concept K.Now it holds good: For each measure-function there exists with measure one the limit of relative frequencies in a sequence of the E().In such an event, where all measure-functions coincide, we speak of a quantitative logical probability, which is the common measure of this event. In formulae we have: l _K (h _n lim h _n )=1 in words: There is the quantitative logical probability one that the limit of the relative frequencies exists. Another way of saying this is that the event ^* (h_n lim h _n) is a maximal element in the comparative structure resulting from K.Therefore we are entitled to introduce this limit and call it statistical probability P.With the aid of the measure-functions it is possible to calculate the velocity of this convergence. The analog of the Bernoulli inequation holds true: m _K (¦h _n –P¦)1–1/4n².It is further possible in the work to obtain relationships for the concept of statistical independence which are expressed in terms of the comparative probability.The theory has a special significance for quantum mechanics: The similarity of the phenomena in the domain of quantum mechanics explains the statistical behaviour of the phenomena.The usual mathematical statistics are explained in my book. But it seems more expedient on the basis of this new theory to use besides the notion of statistical probability also the notion of logical probability; the notion of subjective probability has only a heuristic function in my system.The following dualism is to be noted: The statistical behaviour of similar phenomena may be described on the one hand according to the model of the classical probability theory by means of a figure called statistical probability, on the other hand we may express all formulae by means of a function, called statistical probability function. This function is defined as the limit of the relative frequencies depending on the respective state of the universe. The statistical probability function is the primary notion, the notion of statistical probability is derived from it; it is defined as the value of the statistical probability function for the true unknown state of the universe.As far as the Hume problem, the problem of inductive inference, is concerned, the book seems to give an example of how to solve it.The developed notions such as concept, measure-function, logical probability, etc. seem to be important beyond the concept of similarity.The present work represents a summary of my book Grundzüge zu einem neuen Aufbau der Wahrscheinlich-keitstheorie [5], For this reason, I have frequently dispensed with providing proof and in this connection refer the interested reader to my book.     

The integration of visual and functional classifications in concept formation

Summary Simple motor responses of different similarity were assigned to geometric figures of different similarity. Subsequently, subjects had to learn hierarchical classifications of visually similar or dissimilar figures which were associated with either similar or dissimilar responses. In this way, the visual and the functional similarity of the conceptually united figures were orthogonally varied. It was found that visually similar figures are conceptually classified fastest regardless of their functional similarity. In contrast, functional similarity has a considerable impact on the hierarchical classification of visually dissimilar figures. Functionally similar figures are conceptually faster classified than dissimilar ones. From the results we conclude that concepts are autonomously formed as mediating representations in stimulus-response coordinations. The hierarchical organization of concepts is thereby based on the sequential organization of both the visual input and the behavioral output. Further consequences of this approach are discussed.Portions of this research were presented at the International Symposium on Structure and Function of Human Memory, in Memoriam Hermann Ebbinghaus, Berlin, July 1985     

Altering information to gain action control: Functional aspects of human information processing in decision making

In recent approaches to social judgment, information distortion has been discussed primarily as a violation of individual rationality, due to unintentionally occurring biases. In contrast to this view, it is argued that frequently individuals make purposive use of selective changes in information processing in order to avoid indecisiveness. In this sense, selective changes in information processing may be considered a functional requirement of a volitional process which protects the current intention (or tentative decision) from being replaced by competing behavioral tendencies. On the basis of J. Kuhl's theory of action control (1981, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 155–170; 1982, in W. Hacker, W. Volpert, & M. von Cranach, Eds., Cognitive and Motivational Aspects of Action, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1984, in B. A. Maher, Progress in Experimental Personality Research, Vol. 13, New York: Academic Press) it was predicted that subjects having a high score on the action-control scale (i.e., action-oriented subjects) should show a stronger tendency to increase the attractiveness rating of a tentatively preferred decision during the process of decision making than subjects scoring low on that scale (i.e., state-oriented subjects). To test this assumption, students searching for an apartment were offered 16 apartments along with a list containing information about the alternatives. The subjects had to rate the attractiveness of each apartment twice before they were asked to indicate which apartments they would like to rent. The results confirmed the predictions. It was found that action-oriented subjects increased the divergence of their attractiveness ratings from the first to the second point of evaluation, whereas state-oriented subjects did not.     

Determination of dipeptidyl aminopeptidase activities in the cerebrospinal fluid

The investigation of enzyme activity in cerebrospinal fluid has been without relevant results for laboratories analysing spinal fluid. For neurochemical purposes, it is interesting that the Substance P is convered by Depeptidyl-aminopeptidase IV (DP IV), liberating dipeptides. The hydrolysis of nitroanilids of the form Xaa-Pro-NHNp in cerebrospinal fluid was analysed using them as peptidases substrates. Finally a method for measuring the activity was proposed.     

Catamnestic surveys on somato-psychosocial development in childhood and adolescence of patients with unipolar depressive and bipolar manic-depressive psychoses

The somatic and psychosocial development of 80 subjects with manifest affective-phasic psychoses is studied retrospectively and compared with that of an identically sized control group consisting of neuropsychiatrically healthy subjects. Statistically significant differences were found particularly in the answers to questions dealing with social situation and social adaptability. Achievement at school and vocational qualifications were lower among the parents of the patients than among those of the healthy subjects. Characteristic features of the patients' childhood and adolescence were transient depression, often for no apparent cause, and maladaption, and vocational wishes were fulfilled less often than among the controls. The patients experienced greater difficulty in settling in to a new group due to their contact difficulties.     

Competition and Justice in Adam Smith

This article analyzes the relationship between competition and justice in Adam Smith in order to determine to what extent competition can promote and undermine justice. I examine how competition features in two basic motivations for human action, “the propensity to truck barter and exchange,” and “the desire of bettering our condition.” Both can be traced back to the desire for recognition, but they operate in very different ways. The former manifests itself in social cooperation, chiefly commercial exchange and the division of labor, and while it can take a competitive form, competitive success produces benefits for everyone. In contrast, the latter may manifest itself in win-lose social competition. Commercial society harnesses both motivations, and both have negative as well as positive effects. However, while Smith explicitly addresses the negative effects of excessive specialization in the division of labor, it is less clear how he thinks the negative effects of social competition can be addressed. I argue that competition can undermine justice when (i) it pits people against each other and (ii) leads to psychological corruption. I conclude with some reflections on what a focus on competition adds to our understanding of Smith's work.     

Exploring the Context-Sensitivity of Collective Action Motivations and the Mobilizing Role of Social Media: A Comparative Interview Study With Activists in Germany and Turkey

Western scholarship has underlined the relevance of social identity, perceived efficacy, emotions, and cost–benefit assessments as central catalysts of collective action. Little has been done to understand the context-sensitivity of these catalysts by means of cross-culturally comparative designs. The current study explores their context-sensitivity. It aims to find out whether existing opportunity structures in a democratic, nonrepressive country like Germany produce catalysts of collective action different from those produced in an autocratic, repressive country like Turkey. It also aims to understand the role of social media in mobilizing people in these two contexts. Semistandardized interviews with activists were carried out in both countries (n = 18 in Germany and n = 15 in Turkey) and analyzed by means of a cross-culturally comparative inductive coding procedure including initial and focused coding. Results show that collective action is related to different configurations of collective-action catalysts in the two countries. Solidarity concerns at the face of existential risks are more pronounced in Turkey, whereas political-change concerns are more important in Germany. The role of social media accordingly differs, adhering to the different activist goals. Theoretical implications for the role of context in studying collective action are discussed.     

Scepticism About Scepticism or the Very Idea of a Global ‘Vat-Language’

This paper aims to motivate a scepticism about scepticism in contemporary epistemology. I present the sceptic with a dilemma: On one parsing of the BIV (brain-in-a-vat) scenario, the second premise in a closure-based sceptical argument will turn out false, because the scenario is refutable; on another parsing, the scenario collapses into incoherence, because the sceptic cannot even save the appearances. I discuss three different ways of cashing out the BIV scenario: ‘Recent Envatment’ (RE), ‘Lifelong Envatment’ (LE) and ‘Nothing But Envatment’ (NBE). I show that RE scenarios are a kind of ‘local’ sceptical scenario that does not pose a significant threat to the possibility of perceptual knowledge as such. I then go on to consider the more radical (or global) LE and NBE scenarios, which do undermine the possibility of perceptual knowledge of an ‘external’ world by positing that it is conceivable that one has always been envatted and, hence, trapped in a ‘global’ illusion. I start by assuming that we could be in such a scenario (LE or NBE) and then spell out what we would need to presuppose for such scenarios to be capable of being actual. Drawing on some central insights from Wittgenstein’s anti-private language considerations, I show that the truth of a global scepticism would presuppose the possibility of a private ‘vat-language’, a notion that cannot be rendered coherent. But, if so, then neither can the sceptical scenarios that presuppose such a conception.