Age,sex, and verbal abilities affect location of linguistic connectivity in ventral visual pathway

Previous studies have shown that the strength of connectivity between regions can vary depending upon the cognitive demands of a task. In this study, the location of task-dependent connectivity from the primary visual cortex (V1) was examined in 43 children (ages 9–15) performing visual tasks; connectivity maxima were identified for a visual task requiring a linguistic (orthographic) judgment. Age, sex, and verbal IQ interacted to affect maxima location. Increases in age and verbal IQ produced similar shifts in maxima location; in girls, connectivity maxima shifted primarily laterally within the left temporal lobe, whereas the shift was primarily posterior within occipital cortex among boys. A composite map across all subjects shows an expansion in the area of connectivity with age. Results show that the location of visual/linguistic connectivity varies systematically during development, suggesting that both sex differences and developmental changes in V1 connectivity are related to linguistic function.     

Quantifying the Strength of General Factors in Psychopathology: A Comparison of CFA with Maximum Likelihood Estimation,BSEM, and ESEM/EFA Bifactor Approaches

Whether or not importance should be placed on an all-encompassing general factor of psychopathology (or p factor) in classifying, researching, diagnosing, and treating psychiatric disorders depends (among other issues) on the extent to which comorbidity is symptom-general rather than staying largely within the confines of narrower transdiagnostic factors such as internalizing and externalizing. In this study, we compared three methods of estimating p factor strength. We compared omega hierarchical and explained common variance calculated from confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) bifactor models with maximum likelihood (ML) estimation, from exploratory structural equation modeling/exploratory factor analysis models with a bifactor rotation, and from Bayesian structural equation modeling (BSEM) bifactor models. Our simulation results suggested that BSEM with small variance priors on secondary loadings might be the preferred option. However, CFA with ML also performed well provided secondary loadings were modeled. We provide two empirical examples of applying the three methodologies using a normative sample of youth (z-proso, n = 1,286) and a university counseling sample (n = 359).     

El ambiente construido,disuasivo del delito: Un replanteamiento del «espacio defendible»

Resumen

Se examinó el valor del espacio defendible (facilidad de acceso de los extraños y oportunidades de que los residentes observen las áreas públicas), en varios tipos de vivienda. La comparación de muestras emparejadas de viviendas (en donde una muestra la formaban personas que habían sido victimas de un crimen y otra, personas que no lo habían sido), empleando datos tanto de entrevista como de observación, produjo resultados complejos. El espacio defendible disuade del crimen en las áreas públicas internas, pero no en las externas. Se ha encontrado que el espacio defendible tiene poca influencia en el sentimiento de responsabilidad de las personas hacia las áreas públicas.     

Are consonant intervals music to their ears? Spontaneous acoustic preferences in a nonhuman primate

Humans find some sounds more pleasing than others; such preferences may underlie our enjoyment of music. To gain insight into the evolutionary origins of these preferences, we explored whether they are present in other animals. We designed a novel method to measure the spontaneous sound preferences of cotton-top tamarins, a species that has been extensively tested for other perceptual abilities. Animals were placed in a V-shaped maze, and their position within the maze controlled their auditory environment. One sound was played when they were in one branch of the maze, and a different sound for the opposite branch; no food was delivered during testing. We used the proportion of time spent in each branch as a measure of preference. The first two experiments were designed as tests of our method. In Experiment 1, we used loud and soft white noise as stimuli; all animals spent most of their time on the side with soft noise. In Experiment 2, tamarins spent more time on the side playing species-specific feeding chirps than on the side playing species-specific distress calls. Together, these two experiments suggest that the method is effective, providing a spontaneous measure of preference. In Experiment 3, however, subjects showed no preference for consonant over dissonant intervals. Finally, tamarins showed no preference in Experiment 4 for a screeching sound (comparable to fingernails on a blackboard) over amplitude-matched white noise. In contrast, humans showed clear preferences for the consonant intervals of Experiment 3 and the white noise of Experiment 4 using the same stimuli and a similar method. We conclude that tamarins' preferences differ qualitatively from those of humans. The preferences that support our capacity for music may, therefore, be unique among the primates, and could be music-specific adaptations.     

Déjà Vu all over again: re-revisiting the conceptual status of early word learning: comment on Smith and Samuelson (2006)

The authors assert that L. B. Smith and L. Samuelson's (2006) most recent critique of A. E. Booth, S. R. Waxman, and Y. T. Huang's (2005) work missed its mark, deflecting attention from the important theoretical difference between the two sets of authors' positions and focusing instead on imagined differences and minor expositional complaints. The authors' goal in this response is twofold. First, they aim to redirect attention to the 1 clear difference between the 2 theoretical positions regarding word learning, a difference that is focused on the role of conceptual (in conjunction with perceptual) information in word learning. Second, they place L. B. Smith and L. Samuelson's (2006) current critique in the context of previous exchanges.     

Word learning is 'smart': evidence that conceptual information affects preschoolers' extension of novel words

We examined electrophysiological correlates of conscious change detection versus change blindness for equivalent displays. Observers had to detect any changes, across a visual interruption, between a pair of successive displays. Each display comprised grey circles on a background of alternate black and white stripes. Foreground changes arose when light-grey circles turned dark-grey and vice-versa. Physically stronger background changes arose when all black stripes turned white and vice-versa. Despite their physical strength, background changes were undetected unless attention was directed to them, whereas foreground changes were invariably seen. Event-related potentials revealed that the P300 component was suppressed for unseen background changes, as compared with the same changes when seen. This effect arose first over frontal sites, and then spread to parietal sites. These results extend recent fMRI findings that fronto-parietal activation is associated with conscious visual change detection, to reveal the timing of these neural correlates.     

Executive function across the life span

The development and determinants of executive function (EF) were studied in children (mean age=8.8 years), young adults ( M= 22.3 years), and elderly adults (M = 7 years). EF was indexed by perseverative responding on two bidimensional sorting tasks (Visually Cued Color-Shape task and Auditorily Cued Number-Numeral task), and age-related changes in EF were considered in relation to estimates of conscious vs. unconscious memory that were obtained using the process dissociation procedure (PDP). Results revealed the rise and fall of EF across the life span, with significant quadratic trends found for performance on both sorting tasks and for the conscious recollection component (C) of the PDP task. Regression analyses indicated that PDP estimates of conscious memory accounted for variation in performance on the visual sorting task, but not on the auditory sorting task. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for hierarchical models of EF and its development.     

A Prospective Comparison Study of Different Methods of Gathering Self-Reported Family History Information for Breast Cancer Risk Assessment

Currently there is much debate regarding the ability of mathematical models incorporating epidemiological information or mutation-based risk algorithms to accurately predict a woman's risk of developing breast cancer. Without access to accurate family history information these models have limited use. This study compares different methods of gathering family history information and the impact on subsequent risk assessment. These methods were compared to the gold standard interview with a trained genetics' professional. The amount and accuracy of information provided by primary care doctors' letters was found to be poor and better information was obtained by sending a postal questionnaire directly to the patient. Because of the high number of low-risk women referred to clinic a questionnaire (the FCAT) was designed to provide reassurance and piloted as part of this study. This paper highlights the importance of using appropriate methods to gather the family history information. It presents evidence for the importance of a skilled assessor and the need to allow time for women to discuss the importance of this information with their family.