New analysis of variance formulas for treating data from mutually paired subjects

The experimental design considered in this paper is one in which each of a group of several subjects is observed in the presence of each of the other subjects of the group, the entire set of possible pairings being repeated or replicated on several occasions. Analysis of variance formulas are described for this somewhat unusual design. Both the model of constants and mixed model are considered. Reliability formulas growing out of the analysis of variance calculations are developed.This work was supported in part by grants M-627; M-627C from the National Institutes of Health, Public Health Service.     

The effects of a pre-time-out stimulus on matching-to-sample of humans,

In each of two experiments human subjects were intermittently reinforced with money on a fixed-ratio schedule for emitting correct matching responses. A pre-time-out stimulus which signaled removal of positive reinforcement was periodically superimposed. In the first experiment the superimposed pre-time-out stimulus was paired with a 1-min or 4-min response-independent time out. In the second experiment the pre-time-out stimulus was paired with a 1-min or 4-min time out contingent on the incorrect responses. The pre-time-out stimulus did not markedly influence performance when the time out was response independent. In contrast, the pre-time-out stimulus markedly suppressed incorrect responding when the time out was contingent on the incorrect responses. When duration of this time-out was increased from 1-min to 4-min, suppression of incorrect responding increased and correct responding was suppressed. Therefore, behavioral suppression by a pre-time-out stimulus was obtained only when the signaled aversive event-time out-was response produced. In this case, suppression was influenced by time-out duration.     

Effect of Person

The role of the experimenter in the behavioral study, although recognized by Darwin, Pavlov, psychiatrists and others, has not been adequately evaluated in terms of the quantitative measures of the CR. Our study in this paper concerns especially the cardiac changes induced by “Person” in normal and pathological animals—monkey, dog, cat, opossum, guinea pig and rabbit. Owing to the greater sensitivity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, these are more reliable and delicate measures than the usual somatic muscular ones. The Person can be used as an unconditional stimulus on the basis of which conditional reflexes are formed. Person has an especially pronounced effect on neurotic animals—shown often in a more pronounced way in the cardiorespiratory responses than in the more superficial behavioral ones. This Effect of Person may provide insights into the production of neurosis as well as some of the beneficial effects of therapy, e.g., the personal factor of the therapist.     

The interaction between sensory and tonic factors in the perception of the vertical in pigeons

In two separate experiments, 21 pigeons were given 10 days of training to peck a key on which a white vertical line was exposed. Next, the birds were given generalization tests along the angularity dimension with the floor tilted 24° to the right or to the left. Reliable asymmetrical gradients were obtained with enhanced responding to the side toward which the floor was tilted. This posturally induced distortion in the visual perception of the vertical indicates that sensory-tonic interactions typically observed in humans have a parallel in this lower species.     

Binocular summation in the perception of form at brief durations

Visual form identification at brief durations was studied under: (a) monocular presentation; (b) dichopic presentation where the same form was presented successively on noncorresponding areas; and (c) dichopic presentation where the same form was presented on corresponding areas simultaneously and successively. Form identification for noncorresponding area dichopic presentation was at the level to be expected from 2 independent chances to perceive. Both simultaneous and successive dichopic presentation on corresponding areas gave identification accuracy significantly above the level predicted by the assumption of independence. However, the binocular summation was not complete. When the same amount of energy entering the visual system in a binocular presentation was given in a monocular stimulation, the latter condition gave significantly better identification.     

One-trial cardiac conditioning in dogs

Our interest in cardiovascular conditioning, particularly the fact that conditional tachycardia has been observed in many dogs after only one or two combinations of conditional and unconditional stimuli, led us to investigate conditioning using a single application of an unconditional stimulus. Initially we studied the effect of orienting stimuli (soft tones) on the heart rate in 9 dogs. After 30–100 presentations of the tones alone, each dog received on one occasion a 25-volt shock (sufficient to cause yelping and struggling) to a leg as unconditional stimulus immediately following a tone. Thereafter 30–100 additional tones were presented with no further shock. Little or no heart rate change occurred during the orienting tones (before shock). Three types of cardiac changes occurred during experimental sessions after the shock: 1) Increased heart rate during the tones in 5 dogs; 2) Generalized lowering of heart rate during all experimental sessions after shock in 4 dogs; 3) Electrocardiographic changes during tones in 3 of the dogs also showing the generalized decrease in heart rate. No motor flexion conditional reflexes developed. Tones an octave different in pitch from the one associated with the shock also caused approximately the same heart rate changes, indicating lack of differentiation. This one-trial cardiac conditioning persisted after the single conditioning trial for more than a month in 2 dogs and for at least 3 to 5 sessions in the other dogs.     

The Pastor's role with job-related problems

Summary In the vocational realm a pastor can help a client resolve his problems in a variety of ways. Realizing he has a sympathetic and understanding listener, the client can get a feeling of relief by talking out his problems and expressing his feelings about them. As a less biased observer, the pastor shows him the reality of his situation, and suggests other resources or new plans of possible action. The pastoral counselor might also suggest appropriate religious principles that should improve attitudes and help make smoother relationships with people on his job and elsewhere. Through this kind of counseling help, the client might be led to see his own solution.     

The consciousness of being conscious

Starting with the therapeutic advantage gained when insight acquires consciousness, an investigation of the nature and function of consciousness is undertaken. Consciousness is a state of awareness, having a range of higher mental functions serving a regulatory, controlling, and integrating role in mental activity. There are high levels of thinking, reality testing, experiencing, judging, anticipating; self-awareness and self-reflection enter into these controlling activities. Psychoanalysis has rightly been a science that studies the workings and contents of the unconscious portions of the mind. It has perhaps overlooked the important role that consciousness plays in ordinary life and in providing the levels of control and self-awareness individuals both experience and require. That pathology and disturbances of function may accompany normal states of consciousness as well as altered states of consciousness is a common clinical phenomenon. Psychoanalysis as a therapy widens the scope of the conscious control systems.     

Perceived Risk of AIDS: Assessing the Behavioral and Psychosocial Consequences in a Cohort of Gay Men1

Longitudinal analyses reported here explored the relationship between a perceived sense of being at risk for AIDS and a variety of behavioral, social, and psychological consequences. Data were obtained from a cohort of 637 homosexual men living in Chicago, who are participating in a psychosocial study and have completed two waves of data collection. Their perceptions of risk were quantified using both an absolute and a comparative measure; these were combined into a risk index, scored from one to nine (x?= 3.91; SD= 1.64). Univariate analyses demonstrated that level of risk was related to several measures of subsequent behavioral risk reduction. However, after adjustment for sociodemographic variables, initial behavior, and other components of a model predicting behavior change, this was no longer true. Of the 12 behavioral outcomes assessed, only one was related to risk after appropriate adjustment, and this relationship was negative. Other longitudinal analyses examined the impact of a sense of risk on measures of psychosocial functioning which have been theoretically linked to health behaviors and to measures of psychological/ social distress. These demonstrated a range of potentially adverse consequences for those who perceived themselves to be at greater risk for AIDS, including increased barriers to behavioral change, obsessive/compulsive behavior, social role impairment, and more intrusive worries and concerns about AIDS. Taken together, these results suggest that there is little or no observable benefit to an increased sense of risk, but that such a sense subsequently leads to distress and dysfunction in a variety of realms. The implications of these findings for development of policy concerning antibody testing of at-risk populations is discussed.