Memory activation and the availability of explanations in sequential diagnostic reasoning

In the field of diagnostic reasoning, it has been argued that memory activation can provide the reasoner with a subset of possible explanations from memory that are highly adaptive for the task at hand. However, few studies have experimentally tested this assumption. Even less empirical and theoretical work has investigated how newly incoming observations affect the availability of explanations in memory over time. In this article we present the results of 2 experiments in which we address these questions. While participants diagnosed sequentially presented medical symptoms, the availability of potential explanations in memory was measured with an implicit probe reaction time task. The results of the experiments were used to test 4 quantitative cognitive models. The models share the general assumption that observations can activate and inhibit explanations in memory. They vary with respect to how newly incoming observations affect the availability of explanations over time. The data of both experiments were predicted best by a model in which all observations in working memory have the same potential to activate explanations from long-term memory and in which these observations do not decay. The results illustrate the power of memory activation processes and show where additional deliberate reasoning strategies might come into play.     

Visuospatial over verbal demands in predicting Tower of London planning tasks

The role of verbal and visuospatial information processing in Tower of London (TOL) tasks was investigated. The first part of the investigation examined the verbal and visuospatial abilities and preferred cognitive style (visualizer vs. verbalizer) of 79 participants, in an inter-individual differences approach. Visuospatial abilities significantly predicted TOL performance, but the impact of cognitive style was negligible. The second part applied a dual-task manipulation of concurrent interference of TOL planning tasks on verbal and visuospatial memory, using the same participants. Concurrent processing of the TOL tasks diminished visuospatial memory performance considerably but had no effect on verbal memory, and there was no interaction between cognitive style and memory. These findings clearly underscore the role of visuospatial information processing in TOL tasks and indicate little bearing of verbal or visual cognitive style on TOL problem solving. These results have important implications for TOL and cognitive style in clinical application and cognitive neuroimaging research.     

Do girls and boys perceive themselves as equally engaged in school? The results of an international study from 12 countries

This study examined gender differences in student engagement and academic performance in school. Participants included 3420 students (7th, 8th, and 9th graders) from Austria, Canada, China, Cyprus, Estonia, Greece, Malta, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The results indicated that, compared to boys, girls reported higher levels of engagement in school and were rated higher by their teachers in academic performance. Student engagement accounted for gender differences in academic performance, but gender did not moderate the associations among student engagement, academic performance, or contextual supports. Analysis of multiple-group structural equation modeling revealed that perceptions of teacher support and parent support, but not peer support, were related indirectly to academic performance through student engagement. This partial mediation model was invariant across gender. The findings from this study enhance the understanding about the contextual and personal factors associated with girls' and boys' academic performance around the world.     

Positive and negative affect produce opposing task-irrelevant stimulus preexposure effects

In three experiments, groups were exposed to either positive or negative affect video clips, after which they were presented with a series of task-irrelevant stimuli. In the subsequent test task, subjects were required to learn an association between the previously irrelevant stimulus and a consequence, and between a new stimulus and a consequence. Induced positive affect produced a latent inhibition effect (poorer evidence of learning with the previously irrelevant stimulus than with the novel stimulus). In opposition to this, induced negative affect resulted in better evidence of learning with a previously irrelevant stimulus than with a novel stimulus. In general, the opposing effects also were present in participants scoring high on self-report questionnaires of depression (Experiments 2 and 3). These unique findings were predicted and accounted for on the basis of two principles: (a) positive affect broadens the attentional field and negative affect contracts it; and (b) task-irrelevant stimuli are processed in two successive stages, the first encodes stimulus properties, and the second encodes stimulus relationships. The opposing influences of negative and positive mood on the processing of irrelevant stimuli have implications for the role of emotion in general theories of cognition, and possibly for resolving some of the inconsistent findings in research with schizophrenia patients.     

When the alternative would have been better: counterfactual reasoning and the emergence of regret

Counterfactual reasoning about how events could have turned out better is associated with the feeling of regret. However, developmental studies show a discrepancy between the onset of counterfactual reasoning (at 3 years) and the feeling of regret (at 6 years). In four experiments we explored possible reasons. Experiment 1 (3- to 6-year-old children) and Experiment 2 (adult control) show that even when regret is assessed more directly than in previous studies (e.g., Amsel & Smalley, 2000) only adults but not children regret their decision. Experiment 3 (3- to 14-year-old children) suggests that double-questioning--asking children how happy they are with what they got before and after they had seen what they could have got--creates false positive indications of regret in the youngest children and that--when controlling for false positives--regret is not evident before 9 years. However, children before this age make a difference between attractive (three candies) and less attractive (one candy) items (Experiment 4; 6- to 8-year-old children). Taken together, this suggests that before 9 years of age children base their judgements solely on what they got without taking into account what they could have got.     

Steigerung des ?empowerment“ bei Angeh?rigen von schizophren Erkrankten

Objective

Enhancing empowerment is one of the aims of psychoeducational family interventions but it has never been examined in psychoeducational groups for relatives led by professionals. This study investigated the knowledge gain and the increase of empowerment of psychoeducational group programs for relatives in a naturalistic setting.

Methods

A total of 54 relatives of persons with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorders took part in a psychoeducational group program of 8 sessions. A short questionnaire was used to assess the empowerment before and after the group programs. Knowledge gain was measured with the knowledge of illness about schizophrenia questionnaire (WFB).

Results

Among the participants of the psychoeducational groups the level of empowerment was significantly enhanced and the knowledge was significantly increased (p?<?0.01). The improvement of empowerment was independent of the knowledge gain and did not correlate with gender, age, education or group attendance.

Conclusions

Psychoeducational groups for family members not only reduce the rehospitalization rates of the ill relatives but also have additional positive effects on the family members themselves: better knowledge of the illness and enhanced empowerment. The findings emphasize the importance of psychoeducational groups for the relatives of persons with schizophrenia.     

Psychoedukation bei Borderline-Pers?nlichkeitsst?rungen für Betroffene und Angeh?rige

Psychoeducation programs have been developed for patients with psychoses and also for patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD). Psychoeducation has the function of a basic psychotherapeutic program that offers patients and their relatives a better understanding of the illness and of the treatment options as well as a means of communication at eye level with the therapists. This article introduces the Munich model of psychoeducation for BPD and the modifications for the work with relatives.     

Dyadic Coping Among Couples with COPD: A Pilot Study

COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) is associated with psychological distress for patients as well as their partners. Dyadic coping can be negatively impacted by stressors. This study's objective was to compare the dyadic coping of couples in which one partner suffered from COPD with healthy couples of the same age. A total of 43 complete couples with COPD and 138 healthy couples participated in this pilot study. The surveys were sent by mail. The response rate of the COPD sample was 24.3%. In order to analyze the effect of gender and role (patient vs. partner) on dyadic coping, linear mixed models were calculated. To analyze the effect of gender and group (COPD group vs. normative comparison group) on dyadic coping, two-way analyses of variance were calculated for independent samples. COPD patients and their partners indicated that the patients received more support and were less able to provide support to their partners. This difference was also evident in comparison with the normative comparison group. In addition, couples with COPD perceived higher levels of negative coping and provided a considerably lower assessment of their positive dyadic coping. The dyadic coping of couples with COPD is unbalanced and more negative when compared to that of healthy couples. Interventions aimed at supporting COPD couples should seek to improve couples' dyadic coping in addition to individual coping strategies.