The effects of natural category size on memory for episodic encodings

Previous findings indicate that natural category size affects cued recall but not recognition performance. Words that define or belong to larger categories are not as likely to be recalled in the presence of an extralist cue. However, category size has no effect on recognition in the presence of the target as the cue. Theoretically, this difference could be due to inherent differences between these tasks, to the use of different types of test cues, or to differences in the nature of the required responses (naming compared with “yes/no”decisions). Three experiments indicated that none of these factors is a sole determinant. Natural category size effects were found in cued-recall and recognition tasks, with extralist and target cues and regardless of the required response. The critical factor is whether the testing conditions require or encourage subjects to search the category defined by the cue. With the initiation of such a search, information represented in semantic memory is likely to influence memory for episodic information.     

FOCAL,FORTRAN, and BASIC programs for reformatting and analyzing data collected by the SKED program

Several programs have been written in the FOCAL, FORTRAN, and BASIC languages for reformatting and analyzing SKED data. These programs include selection and explicit labeling of sets of recording counters representing distributions and/or total counts of events, several general manipulations of distributional data, and standard statistical treatment of distributions.     

Do Overgeneral Autobiographical Memories Predict Increased Psychopathological Symptoms in Community Youth? A 3-Year Longitudinal Investigation

Research suggests that an overgeneral autobiographical memory style (i.e., retrieval of general memories when instructed to retrieve a specific episodic memory) represents a vulnerability marker for depression. Although adolescence is a period of high risk for the emergence of depression, little research has investigated the associations among overgeneral memory, psychopathology, and risk factors longitudinally in a community sample in this age group. We, therefore, investigated overgeneral memory, psychopathology (depression and anxiety), and rumination (an established risk factor for psychopathology) longitudinally in 269 typically-developing youth (125 females, 144 males) across 3 annual assessment points. We sought to determine whether 1) overgeneral memory would predict psychopathology across the entire sample, and 2) whether associations would vary as a function of longitudinal rumination growth. Across the entire sample, overgeneral memory did not predict psychopathology. For youth who reported elevated, and increasing, patterns of rumination over time, transient relationships between overgeneral memory and subsequent increases in anxiety were found. We conclude that overgeneral memory may represent a vulnerability marker for adverse psychological outcomes only for youth at risk for psychopathology.     

Gay Identity and HIV Risk for Black and Latino Men Who Have Sex with Men

Strong gay identity among white men who have sex with men (MSM) has been associated with decreased HIV risk, but data for black and Latino MSM (BLMSM) are inconclusive. We examined gay identity and HIV risk among BLMSM to inform social and structural HIV intervention strategies. BLMSM were administered a computerized survey as part of an HIV research study during 2011–2012 conducted in New York City. We used a brief scale of Gay Identity Questionnaire. After data analysis, Stage I (not fully accepting) and Stage II (fully accepting) gay identity were determined based on participant responses. We used logistic regression to calculate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the association between gay identity with HIV risk and social determinant factors. Among 111 self-identified BLMSM (median age = 32 years, 68.4% with some college or higher education), 34.2% reported receptive anal sex without condoms in the previous three months. Gay Identity Questionnaire Scale assessment indicated that 22 (19.8%) were Stage I, and 85 (76.6%) were Stage II in this BLMSM sample. Stage II gay identity was more likely seen among BLMSM with high involvement in the gay community (aOR 3.2; CI 1.00, 10.26) and less likely among BLMSM who exchanged sex for food or shelter (aOR 0.15; CI 0.02, 0.98). Fully accepting gay identity may be protective for BLMSM as it relates to transactional sex; these factors warrant further research and consideration as part of HIV prevention strategies.     

HIV infection associated post-traumatic stress disorder and post-traumatic growth--a systematic review

The phenomenon of post-traumatic stress has been well documented in the literature as a lasting mental health condition associated with exposure to traumatic life events. The diagnosis and experience of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease may be such a trauma. On the other hand, the phenomenon of post-traumatic growth (PTG) has been described, whereby people show positive mental health growth in the face of such trauma. This systematic review was set out to explore post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and PTG in people with HIV to monitor prevalence, measurement and efficacy of interventions to reduce stress and/or promote growth. Standardised review techniques were used to track reports on both PTSD and PTG. A total of 206 papers were retrieved from the PTSD and HIV searches, and 13 from the PTG and HIV searches. After reviewing the papers for inclusion according to adequacy and relevance criteria and to remove duplicates, 33 PTSD papers and three PTG were available for full coding. Prevalence of PTSD in HIV ranged from 5% to 74%, which were much greater than the 7-10% in the general population. Seven studies showed a relation between trauma and PTSD, while six showed a link between PTSD diagnosis and reduced antiretroviral treatment adherence. Women were more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD. Only three intervention reports were identified that fitted our inclusion criteria. All of these reported on psychological interventions for HIV+?individuals with trauma. The interventions utilised HIV education, training in coping techniques and support groups. Only coping interventions were shown to be effective. PTG was under researched but showed a promising avenue of study. There needs to be harmonised measurement and the evidence base would need strengthening in order to build on the understanding of the impact of PTSD and PTG over the course of HIV disease. There is good evidence to associate HIV diagnosis and experiences during the course of illness as traumatic. PTSD has been shown to be prevalent and there seems to be good evidence to incorporate standardised measures to track the course of the disorder. There is extremely limited evidence that interventions may affect the course of symptom experience. The evidence and insight into PTG show promise but is currently inadequate.     

A systematic review of interventions for anxiety in people with HIV

People with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) show elevated anxiety levels compared to the general population. Anxiety can predate HIV infection or be triggered by HIV diagnosis and the many stresses that emerge during the course of HIV disease. Many psychological and pharmacological therapies have been shown to treat anxiety in the general population but a systematic understanding of which interventions have been tested in and are effective with HIV-seropositive individuals is needed. This review examines all published intervention studies on anxiety and HIV from 1980 to 2009 covered by the databases MedLine (1980-2009) and PsycINFO (1980-2009) for a definitive account of effectiveness of interventions and an indication of prevalence of HIV-related anxiety and measurement within studies. Standard systematic research methods were used to gather quality published papers on HIV and anxiety, searching published data bases according to quality inclusion criteria. From the search, 492 papers were generated and hand searched resulting in 39 studies meeting adequacy inclusion criteria for analysis. Of these, 30 (76.9%) were implemented in North America (the USA and Canada), with little representation from developing countries. Thirty-three (84.6%) studies recruited only men or mostly men. A total of 50 interventions were investigated by the 39 studies; 13 targeted HIV, symptoms or associated outcomes/conditions, 20 directly targeted anxiety and another 17 indirectly targeted anxiety. Twenty-four (48%) interventions were effective in reducing anxiety (including 11 indirect interventions), 16 (32%) were ineffective and 10 (20%) had an unknown effect on anxiety. Sixty-five percent of interventions directly targeting anxiety were effective. Psychological interventions (especially cognitive behavioural stress management interventions and cognitive behavioural therapy) were generally more effective than pharmacological interventions. Only three studies provided prevalence rates - these ranged from 13% to 80%. Anxiety was measured using 16 different instruments. Our detailed data suggest that interventions are both effective and available, although further research into enhancing efficacy would be valuable. Also, the vast majority of studies were Western-based, no studies looked at children or adolescents and few looked specifically at women. An international effort to harmonise measurement of anxiety is also missing. There is a need to routinely log anxiety in those with HIV infection during the course of their disease, to provide specific data on women, young people and those in diverse geographic areas and incorporate management into care protocols.     

Time-based prospective remembering: Interference and facilitation in a dual task

The aim of this study was to analyse prospective memory behaviour when people have to fulfil two different intentions whose retention intervals partially overlapped. More specifically, the purpose of the study was to explore the effects of a secondary PM task (either time-based or event-based) on performance of a main time-based PM task. Four embedded conditions were tested: two event-based ones and two time-based ones. The time- and event-based interpolated tasks differed in how closely their target time was to the 20-minute response required by the main time-based task (16th and 19th min., respectively). The results indicated that when a main time-based prospective memory task shares a portion of the retention interval with a second time-based prospective task, this overlapping facilitated performance on the main task. However, the interpolated tasks appeared to be affected by the moment in which they were administered during the execution of the main time-based task. More specifically, a decrease in the interpolated task performance was observed when this was time-based and had to be executed very closely to the target time of the main task. On the contrary, when the two tasks were different (event-based vs. time-based), there was neither interference, nor facilitation.