Motor similarity in subject-performed tasks

In two experiments, subjects learned action phrases in verbal and subject-performed tasks. They had to recognize these action phrases among foils that denoted either completely different actions, conceptually similar actions, or actions that were conceptually and motorically similar. It was found that recognition performance was impaired equally after both kinds of learning when conceptually similar distractors were used, but was impaired more after subject-performed-task learning when the distractors were both conceptually and motorically similar. The possible contribution of motor information in this interaction is discussed.     

Memory of self-performed tasks: Self-performing during recognition

Two experiments focused on whether performing actions described by to-be-remembered phrases during recognition enhances recognition compared with results of a standard verbal recognition test. The enhancement was predicted when the actions described by the phrases had been performed during study, but not when the phrases were verbally encoded by simply listening to and memorizing the material. Both experiments showed that enactment prior to recognition improved memory performance, but only when subjects had encoded by enactment. Experiment 1 also demonstrated that this test-procedure effect was independent of a bizarreness effect, which was observed only with the verbal encoding task. Experiment 2 showed that the effect of enactment during recognition was reduced when subjects used different hands for performing the actions during study and recognition- The findings support the assumption that some kind of motor memory record underlies the enactment effect that occurs when actions are performed during recognition.     

Memory for to-be-performed tasks versus memory for performed tasks

Memory for subject-performed tasks—that is, for simple actions such as lifting a pen, which subjects perform overtly—is better than memory for verbal tasks—that is, when subjects only listen to the action phrases. Here I investigated whether this effect depends on actual performance or whether it also shows up when there is only an intention to perform the task. Koriat, Ben-Zur, and Nussbaum (1990) found that the intention to perform items at test enhanced free recall more than did verbal tasks. Brooks and Gardiner (1994), however, were not able to replicate this finding. In four experiments, I attempted to reconcile this discrepancy by comparing subject-performed tasks, to-beperformed tasks, and verbal tasks under different conditions. The outcome depended on whether a within-subjects design or a between-subjects design was used. In the between-subjects design, memory for subject-performed tasks was better than memory for to-be-performed tasks, and both of these led to better recall performance than did verbal tasks. In a within-subjects design, in contrast, memory for to-be-performed tasks was no different from memory for verbal tasks. These results were independent of whether the test mode was congruent or incongruent. Thus, the discrepant findings of Koriat et al. and of Brooks and Gardiner seem to be due to the design used, pointing to encoding processes as the critical variable. The present results are interpreted to show that actual performance of actions at study provides more information than does only the intention to perform actions at test.     

Self-injurious behavior in institutionalized,severely/profoundly retarded adults—Prevalence data and staff agreement

Staff agreement on the identification of 18 different types of self-injurious behavior (SIB) and the prevalence of SIB were assessed in a population of 91 severely and profoundly retarded residents in a large facility for mentally retarded people in West Germany (FRG). The survey included 27 direct care staff; groups of three to five rated the behavior of 8 to 27 residents from their own wards. Agreement was calculated with two different formulas for multiple raters. The data suggest that the standard definition of SIB [Tate, B. G.,& Baroff, G. S. (1966).Behavior Research and Therapy, 4, 281–287], together with a list of the most common SIB topographies, yields variable and generally low staff agreement. The data for the prevalence statistics were derived from cases in which at least 50% of the staff had indicated the occurrence of an SIB topography in a resident. Sixty of the 91 residents exhibited some form of SIB; of these, 15 demonstrated only one type, 12 two, and 33 three or more SIB topographies. The data corroborate the notion of the two taxonomic classes of social and nonsocial SIB. Contrary to other classifications the data indicate that ruminative vomiting belongs to the social SIB class.The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Udo Lück, chief psychologist of the Diakoniezentrum Hephata, who made this study possible by his interest and support. The help of Walter Edlinger in collecting the data and of Prof. Hartmann Scheiblechner in giving methodological advice is also greatly appreciated.     

Indian muftis and the non‐Muslims

Muslims like to emphasize that Islam represents primarily a way of life and not a system of belief with elaborate doctrines. This statement is justified by the discussions of Indian jurisconsults about the attitudes to be taken towards non‐Muslims. It is true that they occasionally engage in a polemic concerning theological issues, but the main concern is directed towards practical problems the ordinary believer is faced with in his relations with non‐Muslims. Consequently, most fatwas in this context deal with day‐to‐day worries. The trouble caused by Hindus is the allurement of their exuberant festivals and imaginative rituals, whereas questions raised in regard to the British stem from uneasy feelings roused by the strangeness of European culture and its fashions.     

On the interrelations of syntax and semantics

Summary Proceeding from the assumption that the recall of sentence tense is affected by verb meaning, the following variations in verb meaning were introduced: Action vs. State and Terminal vs. Interminal. The influence of these aspects on the recall of the Present and Perfect tenses (in German) was tested in a three-factorial design. A distinct interaction was obtained between the factors Terminal/Interminal and sentence tense. The Action/State condition did not affect the recall of sentence tense. All tested aspects of verb meaning did however influence the recall of sentence content.The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Mr. B. Jankowski in the translation of this paper from an original German version.     

Do obsessional beliefs discriminate OCD without tic patients from OCD with tic and Tourette's syndrome patients?

There is considerable overlap in symptomatology between Tourette's syndrome (TS) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Increased rates of tics are found in OCD and up to 60% obsessive-compulsive symptoms in TS. However, in OCD obsessive-compulsive symptoms are more often anxiety-related and, as a consequence, aimed at anxiety-reduction, whereas in TS these symptoms are more stimulus-bound. Therefore, it is of clinical interest to study whether these phenomenological differences are reflected in differences between dysfunctional cognitions accompanying OC symptoms in OCD with or without tics and TS. Current cognitive theory of OCD ascertains that specific dysfunctional beliefs are important in the etiology and maintenance of OCD. To assess these beliefs, the obsessive-compulsive beliefs questionnaire-87 (OBQ-87) has been developed. In the present study, OBQ-87 scores of OCD patients without tics, OCD with tics, and TS (without OCD) patients were compared to those of normal controls. Results: OCD without tic patients exhibited higher OBQ-87 scores than TS patients. No differences were found between OCD with or without tic patients on any of the OBQ-87 subscales. These results suggest that: (1) dysfunctional beliefs have no discriminative power with respect to OCD with or without tic patients; (2) the direct relationship between types of OC symptoms and specific dysfunctional beliefs is questionable. Therefore, one can doubt the specificity of cognitive theory of OCD to explain specific OC behavior.     

Mood reactivity to daily negative events in early adolescence: relationship to risk for psychopathology

Emotional responses to negative daily experiences in young adolescents may provide important clues to the development of psychopathology, but research is lacking. This study assessed momentary mood reactivity to daily events as a function of risk profile in a school sample, ages 11-14. High-risk (HR, n=25) and low-risk (LR, n=106) subgroups completed frequent self-reports of mood and events for 5 days. HR adolescents reported more negative events involving family and peers. Multilevel modeling results showed that negative events, especially if stressful, were associated with increased negative and decreased positive affects, with heightened responses in HR adolescents. HR adolescents with greater stress over the last 3 months showed additional increases in depressed mood following negative events. Altered reactivity to and dysfunctional appraisals of daily events may link adolescent risk profiles to later mental health problems.