Image tracing: An analysis of its effectiveness in children's pictorial discrimination learning

Previous research has shown that requiring children to trace from memory the correct member of a pictorial discrimination pair markedly facilitates performance. The experiment reported here offers support for a presumed component of this learning strategy, namely, “memory imagery.” In particular, subjects who traced directly on top of the correct picture did not perform as well as those who traced it from memory. Various theoretical explanations of the image-tracing phenomenon are considered, including depth of processing, dual coding, and frequency.     

How to reverse the vicious cycle of low self-esteem: The importance of attentional focus

Recent research suggests that the cognitive processes of low self-esteem people (low SEs) perpetuate low self-esteem and its undesirable emotional and behavioral correlates. For instance, it has been suggested that low SEs are more “self-conscious” than high self-esteem people (high SEs) and that self-consciousness can impair task performance. It was reasoned that if low SEs were led to focus their attention away from themselves and onto the task, performance would improve relative to high SEs. In a 2 × 3 between-subjects factorial design, subjects high and low in chronic self-esteem performed a concept formation task under three conditions: (1) in the presence of an audience, where self-focused attention is presumably high; (2) in a control group, in which attention was not manipulated; and (3) with instructions to concentrate on the task diligently. A significant interaction effect was obtained, indicating that low SEs performed worse than high SEs in the audience condition (p < .025), no differently in the control, and better than high SEs (p < .01) when instructed to concentrate on the task. Although the latter results are unusual in the context of self-esteem research, they are strikingly parallel to recent findings in the study of test anxiety.     

Prechoice awareness of relative deprivation as a determinant of cognitive dissonance

Two experiments were conducted to clarify whether negative information presented after a person has committed himself to a course of action is capable of creating cognitive dissonance. Subjects were exposed to high or low relative deprivation either before they chose to participate in a tedious task, after they chose to participate, or without the option not to participate. The results indicated that there was greater satisfaction about participation under high relative deprivation than under low, but only when subjects were aware of the relative deprivation prior to their choice to participate. Information presented after decision was not effective in arousing dissonance. The implications of the experiments for modified views of dissonance theory were discussed.     

The Phenomenology of Face‐to‐Face Mindreading

I defend a perceptual account of face‐to‐face mindreading. I begin by proposing a phenomenological constraint on our visual awareness of others' emotional expressions. I argue that to meet this constraint we require a distinction between the basic and non‐basic ways people, and other things, look. I offer and defend just such an account.     

Optimism, pessimism, and false failure feedback: Effects on vigilance performance

Following the logic of a prior experiment (Seligman et al., 1990) with varsity collegiate swimmers, sixty student volunteers performed a brief, but highly stressful vigilance task. Half were then given false feedback indicating poor performance; the others experienced a non-evaluative display at that point. All were then asked to repeat the vigil. Half the observers were assessed as high optimists and half as high pessimists. The pessimists showed a steeper vigilance decrement than the optimists, consistent with a model (Scheier and Carver, 1987) that proposes that pessimists are more emotion-focused under stress than optimists, and hence would be less attentive to the vigilance display, regardless of feedback condition. The false negative feedback actually turned out to be ineffective; hence, based on Seligman's account of the swimmer study, which requires effective negative feedback, there should have been no vigilance performance difference between optimists and pessimists, either pre- or post-feedback.     

Blood in the Mainstream: Kālī Pūjā and Tantric Orthodoxy in Early Modern Bengal

A consideration of how Kālī Pūjā enters festival contexts in early modern Bengal can suggest new ways of thinking about blood sacrifice in Hinduism. In this case, it appears that we may have underappreciated the impact of sectarian conflict. Through an exploration of the traditional origins of public Kālī Pūjā, I argue that its promotion with the attendant sacrifice by Brāhma?a aristocrats such as Rāja K???acandra Rāya of Nadīyā (1710–1782) can be read as a claim on public space for the Tantric yet socially and theologically conservative Smārta Hinduism favored by the upper castes over and against the comparatively egalitarian, sacrifice-averse ethos of the local Gau?īya Vai??ava movement.

     

Intergenerational transmission of neuropsychological executive functioning

Relationships between parent and child executive functioning were examined, controlling for the critical potential confound of IQ, in a family study involving 434 children (130 girls and 304 boys) and 376 parents from 204 community recruited families at high risk for the development of substance use disorder. Structural equation modeling found evidence of separate executive functioning and intelligence (IQ) latent variables. Mother’s and father’s executive functioning were associated with child’s executive functioning (beta = 0.34 for father–child and 0.51 for mother–child), independently of parental IQ, which as expected was associated with child’s IQ (beta = 0.52 for father–child and 0.54 for mother–child). Familial correlations also showed a significant relationship of executive functioning between parents and offspring. These findings clarify that key elements of the executive functioning construct are reliably differentiable from IQ, and are transmitted in families. This work supports the utility of the construct of executive function in further study of the mechanisms and etiology of externalizing psychopathologies.