On the prediction of confusion matrices from similarity judgments

Three observers viewed visual representations of eight complex sounds in both a pairwise similarity-judgment task and an identification task. A multidimensional scaling procedure applied to the similarity judgments yielded a three-dimensional perceptual space and the relative positions of the stimuli in that space. A probabilistic decision model based on weighted interstimulus distances served to predict well the confusion matrices of the identification task. Three conditions of the identification task, calling for identification of different subsets of the eight stimuli, led the observers to vary the weights they placed on the dimensions; they apparently adjusted the weights to maximize the percent correct identification. An additional group of 14 subjects, participating only in the similarity-judgment task, manifested the same three dimensions as the observers (corresponding to the locus of low-frequency energy, the locus of midfrequency energy, and visual contrast), and also a fourth dimension (corresponding to the periodicity, or waxing and waning, of the sound). Although not evident in the scaling analysis for the three observers, our utilization of the additional dimension increased significantly the variance accounted for in their identification responses. The overall accuracy of the predictions from a perceptual space to identification responses supplies a substantial validation of the use of multidimensional scaling procedures to reveal perceptual structure in demonstrating the ability of that structure to account for behavior in an independent task. The empirical success of this approach, furthermore, suggests a relatively simple and practical means of predicting, and possibly enhancing, identification performance for a given set of visual or auditory stimuli.     

A study of male and female soldiers' beliefs about the “appropriateness” of various jobs for women in the army

The purpose of this paper is to document the often discussed (e.g., Goldman, 1973) and recently initiated expansion of women's role in the U.S. Army and to present evidence regarding one aspect of soldiers' probable reaction to this expansion — viz., the extent to which soldiers believe certain military jobs are appropriate for women and, in particular, the extent to which these beliefs are related to respondent sex, rank, and expectation of leaving the Army before retirement.     

Face-saving and entrapment

Entrapping conflicts are those in which individuals: (1) have made substantial, unrealized investments in pursuit of some goal, and (2) feel compelled to justify these expenditures with continued investments, even if the likelihood of goal attainment is low. It was hypothesized that entrapment (i.e., amount invested) would be influenced by the relative importance individuals attach to the costs and rewards associated with continued investments. Two experiments tested the notion that entrapment would be more pronounced when costs were rendered less important (and/or rewards were made more important). In Experiment 1, half of the subjects were instructed beforehand of the virtues of investing conservatively (Cautious condition), whereas half were informed of the advantages of investing a considerable amount (Risky condition). Investments were more than twice as great in the Risky condition. Moreover, consistent with a face-saving analysis, (1) the instructions had a greater effect on subjects with high rather than low social anxiety, and (2) individuals with high social anxiety who participated in front of a large audience were more influenced by the instructions than were individuals with low social anxiety who participated in front of a small audience. In the second experiment, the importance of costs and rewards were varied in a 2 × 2 design. As predicted, subjects invested significantly more when cost importance was low rather than high. Contrary to expectation, reward importance had no effect. Questionnaire data from this study also suggested that entrapment was at least partially mediated by the participants' concern over the way they thought they would be evaluated. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

Self-esteem,anxiety, and the avoidance of self-focused attention

The present study was designed to provide converging support for the hypothesis that individuals with low self-esteem (low SEs) find self-focused attention more anxiety provoking, relative to people with high self-esteem (high SEs). Subjects were premeasured for their self-esteem and given a brief opportunity to “practice” two tasks that they believed they would be required to perform in a later part of the experiment. One task was practiced in front of a self-focusing stimulus—a large mirror (mirror task)—whereas the other was not (no-mirror task). Subjects evaluated the tasks after they had practiced each one. Consistent with the notion that self-focused attention is more anxiety provoking for individuals with lower self-esteem, it was observed that: (1) relative to high SEs, lowmedium SEs rated the mirror, but not the no-mirror, task as less enjoyable, and (b) low-medium, but not high, SEs preferred to avoid the mirror task for the alleged upcoming part of the experiment. Subjects high in dispositional private selfconsciousness also wanted to avoid the mirror task, particularly if they were also low in self-esteem. Contrary to prediction, success-failure feedback from a previous task had no effect on subjects' task preferences. Theoretical explanations and implications are discussed.     

Dissonance and self-perception: An integrative view of each theory's proper domain of application

The literature concerning the controversy between dissonance and selfperception theories is reviewed. It is proposed that the two theories be regarded not as “competing” formulations but as complementary ones and, furthermore, that each theory is applicable only to its own specialized domain. Self-perception theory, it is suggested, accurately characterizes attitude change phenomena in the context of attitude-congruent behavior and dissonance theory attitude change in the context of attitude-discrepant behavior. Attitude-congruent is defined as any position within an individual's latitude of acceptance; attitude-discrepant as any position in the latitude of rejection. An experimental test of these notions produced confirming evidence. Subjects who were given an opportunity to misattribute any potential dissonance arousal to an external stimulus did not change their attitudes, relative to low choice subjects, if they were committed to endorsing a position in their latitude of rejection. If the commitment concerned a position in the latitude of acceptance, however, these subjects did exhibit attitude change relative to low choice subjects.     

Developmental differences in subjects' associative-learning strategies and performance: Assessing a hypothesis

Fifth-, seventh-, and ninth-grade (11-, 13-, and 15-year-old) subjects were presented with a list of paired associates to learn and were interviewed about the strategies used to learn them. Although a majority of fifth graders reported simply rehearsing the pairs in order to remember them, very few ninth graders relied exclusively on rehearsal. Consistent with a hypothesis advanced by Rohwer (1973), the number of subjects who elaborated some or all of the pairs increased with age. Paired-associate performance increased with age, but the level of paired-associate learning was much more related to the type of strategy reported by the subject than to the age of the subject per se.     

Additional evidence from a paradigm for inferring discriminative processes in children and adults

A previously developed paradigm which incorporates a correlational methodology into an experimental context was used in the present study to specify more definitely the attribute(s) underlying verbal discrimination learning under normal conditions. In the case of fifth- and sixth-grade children, it was found that frequency theory is sufficient to account for performance on the task. However, older subjects were less homogeneously reliant on the frequency attribute. While many older subjects appeared to utilize frequency cues, others adopted strategies that resulted in the utilization of attributes other than frequency.     

Brief report: On becoming a group therapist

Clinicians have become group therapists via many routes, either voluntarily or not. Group psychotherapy itself has had a checkered history, in that it has often been seen as an ancillary or a second choice form of treatment. Indeed, we know that there is a growing number of well-respected clinicians who are not only not ambivalent about being seen as group clinicians, but embrace this reality as a primary clinical identity. It has occurred to us that no one has looked deeply at this developmental path or what facilitates or inhibits movement along this path. This article is a preliminary attempt to initiate this line of study.