Can Truthmaker Theorists Claim Ontological Free Lunches?

Truthmaker theorists hold that propositions about higher‐level entities (e.g. the proposition that there is a heap of sand) are often made true by lower‐level entities (e.g. by facts about the configuration of fundamental particles). This generates a problem: what should we say about these higher‐level entities? On the one hand, they must exist (since there are true propositions about them), on the other hand, it seems that they are completely superfluous and should be banished for reasons of ontological parsimony. Some truthmaker theorists—most prominently David Armstrong—have tried to solve this puzzle by arguing that these entities are ‘an ontological free lunch’, i.e. real existents that are still ‘no addition of being’. This answer is prima facie attractive, but I argue in this paper that the standard approaches to truthmaking—modal theories and grounding theories—are unable to vindicate the doctrine of the ontological free lunch, and thus fail to solve the problem of higher‐level entities. Fortunately, there is a non‐standard account of truthmaking available, the reductive explanation account, which succeeds where the standard approaches fail.     

Working memory training improvements and gains in non-trained cognitive tasks in young and older adults

Previous studies on working memory training have indicated that transfer to non-trained tasks of other cognitive domains may be possible. The aim of this study is to compare working memory training and transfer effects between younger and older adults (n = 60). A novel approach to adaptive n-back training (12 sessions) was implemented by varying the working memory load and the presentation speed. All participants completed a neuropsychological battery of tests before and after the training. On average, younger training participants achieved difficulty level 12 after training, while older training participants only reached difficulty level 5. In younger participants, transfer to Verbal Fluency and Digit Symbol Substitution test was found. In older participants, we observed a transfer to Digit Span Forward, CERAD Delayed Recall, and Digit Symbol Substitution test. Results suggest that working memory training may be a beneficial intervention for maintaining and improving cognitive functioning in old age.     

Extending JAGS: A tutorial on adding custom distributions to JAGS (with a diffusion model example)

We demonstrate how to add a custom distribution into the general-purpose, open-source, cross-platform graphical modeling package JAGS (“Just Another Gibbs Sampler”). JAGS is intended to be modular and extensible, and modules written in the way laid out here can be loaded at runtime as needed and do not interfere with regular JAGS functionality when not loaded. Writing custom extensions requires knowledge of C++, but installing a new module can be highly automatic, depending on the operating system. As a basic example, we implement a Bernoulli distribution in JAGS. We further present our implementation of the Wiener diffusion first-passage time distribution, which is freely available at https://sourceforge.net/projects/jags-wiener/.     

Application of the rubber hand illusion paradigm: comparison between upper and lower limbs

The “rubber hand illusion (RHI)” is a perceptual illusion, which allows the integration of artificial limbs into the body representation of a person by means of combined visual and tactile stimulation. The illusion has been frequently replicated but always concerning the upper limbs. The present study verified an analog illusion that can be called the “rubber foot illusion” (RFI). In a conjoint experiment using both a rubber hand and a rubber foot, brushstrokes were applied to the respective real and rubber limb placed alongside the real one. However, only the artificial limb’s handling was visible. The brushstrokes were given either synchronously, with a delay of ±0.5 s, or without tactile stimulation of the real limb. Questionnaire data and the proprioceptive drift towards the rubber limb (determined by calling on the subjects to show where they locate their unseen limb) defined the illusion strength. Results revealed that the illusion was induced in both limbs with comparable strength, but only in the synchronous condition.     

A self-regulation-based intervention to increase physical activity in cancer patients

The study examined whether a behavior-change intervention focusing on self-regulatory strategies and emphasizing role model support increases physical activity (PA) among insufficiently active (not meeting PA guidelines of 150 min/week) cancer patients. Ambulatory cancer patients [N = 72; 54% female; M = 56 years, SD = 12.34; most with breast or colon cancer (34, 15%)] were enrolled in the MOTIVACTION-study, a 4-week intervention (1-hr counseling, followed by weekly phone calls), with pretest (T1), posttest (T2) and a 10-week follow-up (T3). Participants were randomized to either an exercise or to a stress management intervention (active control). The exercise intervention emphasized self-regulatory strategies (e.g. action- and coping planning and self-monitoring); patients were also encouraged to contact a physically active same-sex role model as a potential exercise partner. The active control condition consisted of coping and relaxation techniques. Sixty-seven patients remained in the study and completed the SQUASH assessment of PA and a measure of perceived stress. PA was validated by Actigraph accelerometry. At T2, 46% of the patients in the exercise group and 19% of stress management patients increased their activity levels to meet PA guidelines (>150 min/week; χ²(1) = 5.51, p = .019). At T3, participants in the exercise intervention maintained their exercise level (46%), but also 31% of the stress management patients met the guidelines. All patients reported reductions in perceived stress. Additional analyses comparing patients in the exercise group by role model contact (63% realized contact) revealed that those who had contact with their role model were significantly more likely to adhere to the recommended guidelines (T2:50%; T3:64%) compared to those who did not have contact with a role model (T2:39%; T3:15%), suggesting the potential of mobilizing role model support to facilitate PA. In sum, cancer patients may not only benefit from an exercise intervention emphasizing self-regulation, but also from stress management, regarding both reducing stress and increasing PA.     

The impact of epistemological beliefs and cognitive ability on recall and critical evaluation of scientific information

Scientific research findings are frequently picked up by the mainstream media, but it is largely unclear which factors have an impact on laypeople’s processing of the presented scientific information. In this study, we investigated the influence of cognitive and metacognitive inter-individual differences on recall and on critical evaluation of new scientific information that was presented in a journalistic article. Sixty-three participants (80 % female; mean age 24.1 ± 3.3 years) read a newspaper article reporting research findings on a recently developed and yet unproven treatment for depression. We found that more sophisticated, domain-specific epistemological beliefs and a higher cognitive ability were independently associated with better recall of content from the article. Additionally, participants with more sophisticated epistemological beliefs displayed a more critical evaluation of the article. Cognitive ability was unrelated to critical evaluation and to epistemological beliefs. There were also no interaction effects of cognitive ability and epistemological beliefs on recall or on critical evaluation. Based on our preliminary findings and previous evidence of epistemological beliefs as a modifiable feature, we discuss this inter-individual characteristic as a potential target for the promotion of better understanding of scientific topics by the general public.     

The Effect of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy on Irrational Career Beliefs of Students of Electrical Electronics and Other Engineering Trades in Technical Colleges in Nigeria

Irrational beliefs are factors that can explain students’ emotional and/or pragmatic problems. Irrational career beliefs are career myths, maladaptive cognitions and inaccurate beliefs regarding career and the work world which impact negatively on career decision-making. The present research investigated the effectiveness of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) on irrational career beliefs of students of electrical electronics, automobile trade, building/woodwork and mechanical trades in technical colleges in Nigeria. Using a pretest–posttest control group, 173 participants were assessed quantitatively at four time points. One-way ANOVA, repeated-measures ANOVA and paired sample t test were utilized for analysis of data. Posttest results indicated that the irrational career beliefs of the REBT participants declined significantly compared to a waitlist control group. Furthermore, results of both 3- and 6-months follow-up evaluations showed that the significant reduction in irrational career beliefs of the REBT participants was maintained. Therefore, supporting interventions which aim to promote functional career beliefs and thoughts among the citizens, beginning from the early school years to the graduate school level and in the workplaces, should be considered a top policy issue in Nigeria. Further studies are needed to examine whether exposing students to an REBT program can lead to less anxiety related to career decision-making and improved career self-efficacy beliefs.     

Cointegration methodology for psychological researchers: An introduction to the analysis of dynamic process systems

Longitudinal data analysis focused on internal characteristics of a single time series has attracted increasing interest among psychologists. The systemic psychological perspective suggests, however, that many long-term phenomena are mutually interconnected, forming a dynamic system. Hence, only multivariate methods can handle such human dynamics appropriately. Unlike the majority of time series methodologies, the cointegration approach allows interdependencies of integrated (i.e., extremely unstable) processes to be modelled. This advantage results from the fact that cointegrated series are connected by stationary long-run equilibrium relationships. Vector error-correction models are frequently used representations of cointegrated systems. They capture both this equilibrium and compensation mechanisms in the case of short-term deviations due to developmental changes. Thus, the past disequilibrium serves as explanatory variable in the dynamic behaviour of current variables. Employing empirical data from cognitive psychology, psychosomatics, and marital interaction research, this paper describes how to apply cointegration methods to dynamic process systems and how to interpret the parameters under investigation from a psychological perspective.     

Does the Modality Effect Exist? and if So, Which Modality Effect?

The modality effect is a central issue in multimedia learning [see Mayer (Cambridge University Press, 2005a), for a review]. Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), for example, presumes that an illustrated text is better understood when presented visually rather than orally. The predictive power of CLT lies in how it links in to Baddeley’s (1986) model of working memory and Penney’s (Mem Cognit 17:398–442, 1989) Separate-Streams Hypothesis. Ginns’s (Learn Instr 4:313–331, 2005) recent meta-analysis also supports the modality effect (d = 0.72, based on 43 independent effects). This article replicates the meta-analysis of the modality effect based on 86 independent effects (with within-study subgroups as the unit of analysis and with mean of the outcomes as the dependent measure), with results showing a reduction of the overall effect size by almost half (d = 0.38), and even more when Duval and Tweedie’s Trim and Fill method is used to correct publication bias (d = 0.20). This article also widens the scope of the analysis of moderator variables (e.g. Pace of presentation, Type of visualization, Research group) as well as their potentially confounded effects. Finally, it is argued that, for theoretical reasons, the so-called modality effect cannot be based on Penney’s or Baddeley’s theories and must be explained in a different way.     

Entwicklung und Evaluation eines interaktiven Films für Jugendliche zur Vermittlung von Gerichtswissen

An interactive movie for juvenile witnesses produced by the author was evaluated in terms of its effectiveness to convey court relevant knowledge to 16-year-old and 17-year-old students. A control group design was used. Controls received a brochure containing information comparable to the movie which was also developed by the author. The aim of the study was to empirically evaluate the movie in order to make it available to juvenile witnesses as an instrument for court preparation in the future. A total of 52 students aged 16 and 17 years at a training college were investigated and court knowledge was measured prior to testing. Participants in the treatment group then viewed the movie, which was produced by the author. The control group received a brochure containing information very similar to the contents of the movie. Approximately 2 weeks later, court relevant knowledge was again assessed and both treatment and control groups showed a strong and significant increase in court relevant knowledge. Comparing the groups showed that the effects tended to be stronger for the treatment group than for the control group. It was also investigated if legal misconceptions could be reduced by the interventions. Analyses indicated that effects were not significant and there was no significant difference between the groups. A significant increase of court relevant knowledge could be found for both treatment conditions. The weak effects concerning the reduction of legal misconceptions could be due to the fact that they were not explicitly presented in the movie but were treated more indirectly by presenting correct knowledge only.