Physiological effects of enriched environment exposure and LTP induction in the hippocampus in vivo do not transfer faithfully to in vitro slices

A number of experimental paradigms use in vitro brain slices to test for changes in synaptic transmission and plasticity following a behavioral manipulation. For example, a number of previous studies have reported a variety of effects of environmental enrichment (EE) exposure on field potential responses in hippocampal slices, but in no study was is it known what changes had been elicited in vivo. In the present study, we recorded from the hippocampus in vivo while rats underwent a brief period of EE. There was no detectable EE-induced change in synaptic efficacy in the dentate gyrus in vivo, but there was an increase in cellular excitability. In slices prepared from the same animals, we failed to observe any evidence of the excitability increase. We next tested whether LTP induction in vivo was better preserved in vitro. However, when slices from these rats were examined, there was no observable change in perforant path synaptic strength, although there was a modest increase in excitability that correlated with the increased excitability observed in vivo. These findings suggest that synaptic changes induced in vivo either are not preserved faithfully or are difficult to detect in hippocampal slices, while changes in cellular excitability are better preserved.Exposure to an enriched environment (EE) can improve performance on a variety of hippocampus-dependent memory tasks in both normal (Kempermann et al. 1997; Duffy et al. 2001; Teather et al. 2002; Schrijver et al. 2004; Irvine and Abraham 2005) and disease model (Ohlsson and Johansson 1995; Young et al. 1999; Jankowsky et al. 2005; Lazarov et al. 2005; Nithianantharajah and Hannan 2006; Laviola et al. 2008) animals. Previous studies attempting to understand the physiological changes that mediate these effects have yielded mixed results, which may in part be due to the variability in enrichment paradigms used in different laboratories, but which may also be due to the method used to measure hippocampal physiology.Traditionally, researchers have studied the effects of EE using ex vivo brain slices. Such studies have sometimes reported an increase in synaptic strength following enrichment (Green and Greenough 1986; Foster et al. 1996; Foster and Dumas 2001), but a lack of a change has also been observed (Duffy et al. 2001; Feng et al. 2001; Parsley et al. 2007). The ex vivo approach is predicated on the assumption that EE (or other behavioral) treatment induces changes in neural function that are of sufficient magnitude and extent that they will still be present when the brain is removed and studied in vitro. However, there could be many hidden effects of slice preparation (Kirov et al. 2004) that change or obscure effects occurring in vivo.In a previous study, we were surprised to find few effects of a 3-mo EE treatment on hippocampal synaptic function and plasticity when assessed in vitro (Eckert et al. 2010), despite our having observed with in vivo recordings substantial effects with shorter periods of EE exposure (Irvine and Abraham 2005; Irvine et al. 2006). We therefore considered the possibility that effects measured electrophysiologically in vivo may not be readily detectable in vitro. Testing this hypothesis requires studying the same animals in vivo and in vitro, a control procedure we are not aware of having been reported previously in the literature. In the present study, we examined whether the effects of EE or LTP induction in vivo could be detected in hippocampal slices taken from the same animals. We failed to detect any of the in vivo changes, except for a modest increase in cellular excitability following LTP.     

Ethics and Values as Major Factors Related to Multicultural Aspects of Counselor Preparation

Counselors and future counselors face a variety of challenges as society becomes more diverse and laden with differing value systems. As the Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice (American Counseling Association, 1995) is changed to become more inclusive of the values held in a diverse society, changes in counselor preparation to incorporate these changing values are necessary. The authors discuss how values and ethics inform counselor preparation and recommend the application of J. A. Banks's (1981, 1988) multicultural educational pedagogy to counselor preparation programs.     

Model of Effects of Adult Attachment on Emotional Empathy of Counseling Students

The effects of adult attachment on emotional empathy were investigated using a sample of master's‐degree level counseling students. Through structural equation modeling, the authors found that the latent attachment dimensions of avoidance and anxiety work in tandem in their effects on empathy. Lower avoidance and higher anxiety were associated with highest levels of empathy. Results are discussed in terms of attachment theory and the wounded healer concept, with implications for counselor trainees, counselor educators, and counselor supervisors.     

Does Counseling Need the Mind?

In this article, the author argues that the language used in counseling practice is largely a common sense language using mentalistic words. Basic mentalistic assumptions and challenges to those assumptions are outlined. The practical consequences of retaining or discarding mentalism in counseling are discussed. The author concludes that mentalistic language persists in counseling practice because it offers a useful vocabulary, but that the counseling field could benefit from adopting a path similar to that used in the cognitive sciences.     

The cognitive and affective dimensions of moral conviction: implications for attitudinal and behavioral measures of interpersonal tolerance

The present studies investigate the role of both cognitive and affective dimensions of moral conviction in contributing to negative interpersonal responses. After demonstrating that the cognitive and affective dimensions of moral conviction are distinct constructs, the studies show that the cognitive dimension is sufficient to produce many forms of interpersonal intolerance. Simply believing an issue to be moral (i.e., objectively grounded, non-negotiable) results in greater intolerance for (Study 1), less sharing with (Study 2), and greater distancing from (Study 3) people with divergent attitudes. The emotional intensity with which beliefs are experienced is not alone explanatory. Nonetheless, it interacts with moral beliefs to produce the highest levels of interpersonal intolerance, distancing from dissimilar others, and context insensitivity. This interaction pattern between moral beliefs and affect was specific to emotional intensity and not other measures of attitude strength (Study 3).     

Daily Behavior Report Cards and Systematic Direct Observation: An Investigation of the Acceptability,Reported Training and Use,and Decision Reliability Among School Psychologists

More than ever, educators require assessment procedures and instrumentation that are technically adequate as well as efficient to guide data-based decision making. Thus, there is a need to understand perceptions of available tools, and the decisions made when using collected data, by the primary users of those data. In this paper, two studies that surveyed members of the National Association of School Psychologists with regard to two procedures useful in formative assessment, (i.e., Daily Behavior Report Cards; Systematic Direct Observation), are presented. Participants reported greater overall levels of training and use of Systematic Direct Observation than Daily Behavior Report Cards, yet both techniques were rated as equally acceptable for use in formative assessment. Furthermore, findings supported that school psychologists tend to make similar intervention decisions when presented with both types of data. Implications, limitations, and future directions are discussed.     

An Experimental Analysis of Mathematics Instructional Components: Examining the Effects of Student-Selected Versus Empirically-Selected Interventions

Within the context of an experimental analysis, the current study examined the effects of student- and empirically-selected interventions on the mathematics computational fluency of three elementary-aged students. For all of the participants, the empirically-selected intervention resulted in higher levels of computational fluency then the student-selected intervention. These results suggest that empirically-selected interventions may enhance the mathematics computational fluency of students experiencing mathematics problems. However, individual responsiveness to empirically-selected interventions suggests the importance of conducting brief experimental analyses to determine the most efficacious intervention. The implication of these results for intervention selection and incorporating choice-making opportunities into academic interventions are discussed.     

Effects of Performance Context on Processing Speed and Performance Ratings

The present study demonstrated that the presence of evaluatively polarized context performances not only produces contrast and halo effects on judgments of a target performance, but also causes judgments to be made much faster. Processing speed and positive halo were highly correlated, supporting the notion that halo in performance ratings results from raters' recall and use of a single, general impression. Furthermore, regression analyses demonstrated that processing speed mediates the relationship between context and halo. The relationship between these findings, halo, processing speed, and general impressions, as well as implications for performance appraisals, are discussed.     

Evaluation of Two New Scales Assessing Driving Anger: The Driving Anger Expression Inventory and the Driver's Angry Thoughts Questionnaire

This study assessed the validity of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) and Driver's Angry Thoughts Questionnaire (DATQ). Scales within the DAX and DATQ appeared to assess separate, correlated constructs. Aggressive forms of thinking and anger expression correlated positively with each other, trait driving anger, aggressive and risky behavior, some crash-related conditions, general trait anger, and general forms of anger expression. Positive, constructive forms of thinking and anger expression correlated positively with each other, but minimally or negatively with other variables. Specific aggressive forms of thinking and anger expression formed stronger links with each other than other forms of expression, supporting the discriminant validity of the DATQ and DAX. Hierarchical regressions with DATQ and DAX scales entered after other variables showed that they added explained variance above and beyond other measures, supporting the discriminant and incremental validity of these scales. It was concluded that the DAX and DATQ have utility for researchers and clinicians interested in angry drivers.     

Practical Guide for Reporting Effect Size in Quantitative Research in the Journal of Counseling & Development

The purpose of this article is to assist researchers in meeting the requirement of reporting effect sizes in quantitative research studies submitted to the Journal of Counseling & Development. This requirement is detailed in the “Guidelines for Authors” included in this issue. The authors provide practical information on generating, reporting, and interpreting effect size estimates for various types of statistical analyses. Information is provided on the meaning of effect sizes within the larger knowledge base.