Rule-violations sensitise towards negative and authority-related stimuli

Rule violations have usually been studied from a third-person perspective, identifying situational factors that render violations more or less likely. A first-person perspective of the agent that actively violates the rules, on the other hand, is only just beginning to emerge. Here we show that committing a rule violation sensitises towards subsequent negative stimuli as well as subsequent authority-related stimuli. In a Prime-Probe design, we used an instructed rule-violation task as the Prime and a word categorisation task as the Probe. Also, we employed a control condition that used a rule inversion task as the Prime (instead of rule violations). Probe targets were categorised faster after a violation relative to after a rule-based response if they related to either, negative valence or authority. Inversions, however, primed only negative stimuli and did not accelerate the categorisation of authority-related stimuli. A heightened sensitivity towards authority-related targets thus seems to be specific to rule violations. A control experiment showed that these effects cannot be explained in terms of semantic priming. Therefore, we propose that rule violations necessarily activate authority-related representations that make rule violations qualitatively different from simple rule inversions.     

Fear of evaluation unpacked: day-to-day correlates of fear of negative and positive evaluation

Background and objectives: Social interactions inevitably go along with repeated evaluations. Some individuals are particularly sensitive to social evaluations: Psychometric studies suggest stable and distinct individual differences on fear of negative evaluations (FNE) and fear of positive evaluation (FPE). However, little is known about day-to-day correlates of FNE and FPE, particularly their respective contribution to positive/negative affect level and affect reactivity to different stressor types.

Design: Two studies naturalistically assessed the level of negative/positive affect and its reactivity to different stressor types (from distant or close social network, work and daily hassles, assessed daily) as a function of FNE/FPE.

Method: Ecological Momentary Assessment employed five daily prompts during 12/10 days in convenience samples of 50/59 participants.

Results: FNE predicted lower positive affect level only in Study 2. Consistent across studies negative affect reactivity to stressors emanating from the distant social network was increased in individuals high in FNE or FPE.

Conclusions: Results document the relevance of both types of evaluation fears (FNE/FPE) for day-to-day affect and stress reactivity. They further specify whose evaluations are well tolerated (close network) or feared (distant network), thereby refining current psycho-evolutionary accounts of FNE/FPE.     

Effects of referential ambiguity,time constraints and addressee orientation on the production of morphologically complex words

In five experiments, participants were asked to describe unambiguously a target picture in a picture–picture paradigm. In the same-category condition, target (e.g., water bucket) and distractor picture (e.g., ice bucket) had identical names when their preferred, morphologically simple, name was used (e.g., bucket). The ensuing lexical ambiguity could be resolved by compound use (e.g., water bucket). Simple names sufficed as means of specification in other conditions, with distractors identical to the target, completely unrelated, or geometric figures. With standard timing parameters, participants produced mainly ambiguous answers in Experiment 1. An increase in available processing time hardly improved unambiguous responding (Experiment 2). A referential communication instruction (Experiment 3) increased the number of compound responses considerably, but morphologically simple answers still prevailed. Unambiguous responses outweighed ambiguous ones in Experiment 4, when timing parameters were further relaxed. Finally, the requirement to name both objects resulted in a nearly perfect ambiguity resolution (Experiment 5). Together, the results showed that speakers overcome lexical ambiguity only when time permits, when an addressee perspective is given and, most importantly, when their own speech overtly signals the ambiguity.     

Intelligence and individual differences in becoming neurally efficient

Physiological approaches to human psychometric intelligence have shown a higher neural efficiency (i.e. less cortical activation) during cognitive performance in brighter subjects. The main aim of this study was to explore the relationship between intelligence and cortical activation patterns in the framework of the learning test concept. In 27 participants we assessed the topography and extent of cortical activation by means of event-related desynchronization (ERD) during reasoning tests in a pre-test--training--post-test design and related it to psychometric intelligence (measured by the German Leistungs-Prüf-System, LPS). Significant associations between intelligence and cortical activation patterns were exclusively found at anterior (frontal) recording sites, which corroborates the central role of the frontal lobe for higher-order cognitive functions. The hypothesized negative intelligence-activation correlation was observed only after the training, i.e. in the post-test, but not in the pre-test. More important, the decrease in cortical investment from pre-test to post-test correlated negatively with intelligence, indicating that the higher the subjects' general mental ability the larger the decrease in the amount of cortical activation. These findings suggest intelligence-related individual differences in becoming neurally efficient.     

When is all understood and done? The psychological reality of the recognition point

Using lexical decision, the effects of primes of different length on spoken word recognition were evaluated in three partial repetition priming experiments. Prime length was determined via gating (Experiments 1a and 2a). It was shorter than, equivalent to, or longer than the recognition point (RP), or a complete word. In Experiments 1b and 1c, priming increased with prime length and was independent of reaction time. The influence of sensory information following the RP was investigated in Experiment 2b. Latencies decreased with increasing prime length, but priming decreased only for complete words. RP and complete words have a special status. Lexical representations are activated to different degrees at the RP and at word offset.     

Orientation,length and exposure duration in the identification of line segments

Summary Single line segments titled with 0, 45, 90, and 135 degrees orientation were briefly exposed as stimuli and the subjects had to identify the orientation of a presented line segment. The length of the lines and the exposure duration were varied. The multicomponent theory (Rumelhart, 1970, 1971) was applied to the observed frequencies of a correct response and of some incorrect responses given to a stimulus with a particular orientation, length, and exposure duration. Within the framework of this theory several hypotheses concerning the effects of orientation, length and exposure duration in identification were tested. The main results are: (1) The rate of component detection was higher for the horizontal and vertical orientations than for the two oblique orientations. (2) The number of components in a line segment quite accurately followed a linear function of the line's physical length, and the negatively valued additive constant in this function could not be neglected. (3) The information in the visual information store decayed more rapidly after longer exposure durations and more slowly after shorter exposure durations. These findings are discussed in relation to other research on the subject.     

Contour effects in figure perception

Summary Three experiments were performed to test the hypothesis that a target line that forms an outer contour of a stimulus figure is detected better than an internal target line. In the first experiment tridimensional stimuli similar to the object stimuli of Weisstein and Harris (1974), were used. In the second and third experiments arrows and triangles were used as stimuli, composed of one of the four right angles of a square and a diagonal. In the first two experiments the diagonal lines served as targets, and external diagonal lines were detected better than internal diagonals or diagonals without context. In the third experiment the right angles served as targets; these were detected better in arrows than in triangles or without the context diagonal. In each experiment the targets formed vertices and intersections with other line segments of the stimulus. It is argued that these local configurational features facilitated target detection by automatically attracting attention, particularly if they were located at the boundaries of the stimulus figure.This study was supported by grant Wa 419/1 of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. The author wants to thank U. Bauer, J. Beringer, Cl. Gall, and U. Jacob for their help in performing the experiments     

Sigmund Freud--portrait of writer]

As physician and writer Freud held an ambivalent attitude towards poets. Jens clarifies this by reference to Wilhelm Stekel's address and the subsequent discussion in Freud's Wednesday evening society, both concerned with the world première of Gerhart Hauptmann's stage play Griselda (1909).     

Logic Diagrams as Argument Maps in Eristic Dialectics

This paper analyses a hitherto unknown technique of using logic diagrams to create argument maps in eristic dialectics. The method was invented in the 1810s and -20s by Arthur Schopenhauer, who is considered the originator of modern eristic. This technique of Schopenhauer could be interesting for several branches of research in the field of argumentation: Firstly, for the field of argument mapping, since here a hitherto unknown diagrammatic technique is shown in order to visualise possible situations of arguments in a dialogical controversy. Secondly, the art of controversy or eristic, since the diagrams do not analyse the truth of judgements and the validity of inferences, but the persuasiveness of arguments in a dialogue.