Experimental Personality Designs: Analyzing Categorical by Continuous Variable Interactions

Theories hypothesizing interactions between a categorical and one or more continuous variables are common in personality research. Traditionally, such hypotheses have been tested using nonoptimal adaptations of analysis of variance (ANOVA). This article describes an alternative multiple regression-based approach that has greater power and protects against spurious conclusions concerning the impact of individual predictors on the outcome in the presence of interactions. We discuss the structuring of the regression equation, the selection of a coding system for the categorical variable, and the importance of centering the continuous variable. We present in detail the interpretation of the effects of both individual predictors and their interactions as a function of the coding system selected for the categorical variable. We illustrate two- and three-dimensional graphical displays of the results and present methods for conducting post hoc tests following a significant interaction. The application of multiple regression techniques is illustrated through the analysis of two data sets. We show how multiple regression can produce all of the information provided by traditional but less optimal ANOVA procedures.     

Separation Versus Connection,The Gender Controversy: Implications for Counseling Women

Traditional developmental theories hold that separation is the primary goal of human emotional development. Numerous current theorists question this notion. They propose that a girl's development of self is dependent on mutually empathic relationships with primary caretakers. This revision of developmental theory has implications for counseling. The counseling relationship with a woman should provide validation for her relational skill and opportunity to practice relational competence within the counseling relationship. Boys and men may also have the need to develop relational competence to secure a strong sense of self. If so, a relational model of counseling would apply to them as well.     

TRUE IMITATIVE LEARNING IN PIGEONS

Abstract— Providing evidence for imitative learning in animals has been made difficult by the need to control for a number of possible nonimitation accounts (e.g., mere presence of another animal, attention drawn to a location, attention drawn to an object being manipulated) that often have not been recognized in previous research. In the present experiment we used a version of the two-action method in which a treadle could be operated by a pigeon in one of two distinctive ways with its beak by pecking or with us foot by stepping. What is unique in this experiment is not only the distinct response topographies, but also that both responses have the same effect on the environment (depression of the treadle followed by food reward) When pigeons that had observed one of the two response topographies were given access to the treadle, a significant correspondence was found between the topography of the observers responses and that of their respective demonstrators' responses.     

REPETITION BLINDNESS INTERACTS WITH SYNTACTIC GROUPING IN RAPIDLY PRESENTED SENTENCES

Abstract— This study rested for predicted effects of syntax on a repetition deficit (RD) known as repetition blindness, the reduced probability of recall for repeated words in rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) sentences The syntactic variable was phrase-congruent versus phrase-incongruent grouping within simultaneous RSVP displays With phrase-congruent grouping, each RSVP display contained a syntactic phrase (e g, "to play sports" in the sentence "They wanted to play sports but sports were not allowed"), whereas with phrase-incongruent grouping, RSVP displays contained nonphrases (e g, "sports but sports") RD was extensive with phrase-incongruent grouping (29%), but nonsignificant (6%) with phrase-congruent grouping, as if phrase-congruent groups free up the extra processing time needed to connect repeated words into phrases in rapidly presented sentences, enabling top-down retrieval of the phrases during recall The present results comport with effects of syntax and prosody on auditory RD, and suggest that visual and auditory RD are identical underlying phenomena.     

Evaluating Müller-Lyer effects using single fin-set configurations

Four experiments were conducted to study the bias of perceived length for Müller-Lyer configurations that contained a single set of fins (i.e., two segments that join to form a vertex). The experiments manipulated several factors that have been shown to be critical to the effect: (1) version (which way the apex pointed), (2) length of the stimulus span, (3) presence or absence of a line segment in the span being judged, (4) fin length, (5) fin angle, and (6) the zone in which the response was rendered. Using percent error as the index of perceptual distortion, the major finding was that the two versions show an opposite slope for strength of effect as a function of span. When stimulus spans were plotted against response means (not converting to percent error), an almost perfect linear relation was found. These results indicate that the perceptual effects can be modeled as a linear system having two parameters through which the treatments exert their influence. The results are discussed in relation to major theories of mechanism for the Müller-Lyer illusion.     

Leader Positive Mood and Group Performance: The Case of Customer Service

It was hypothesized that leader positive mood would be positively associated with group performance in a service setting. Additionally, it was expected that while leader positive mood would be positively associated with both the leader's level of job satisfaction and job involvement, leader positive mood would be positively associated with group performance, controlling for both leader job satisfaction and job involvement. Leader positive mood also was expected to be positively associated with group performance controlling for group positive affective tone. Two potential antecedents of leader positive mood, the leader's level of positive affectivity and the extent to which the leader's own manager engaged in contingent reward behavior, were hypothesized to be positively associated with leader positive mood at work. These hypotheses were tested among a sample of 53 sales managers who led groups ranging in size from 4 to 9 members. All of the hypotheses were supported. Implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed.     

Gender Characteristics and Relationship Adjustment: Another Look at Similarity-Complementarity Hypotheses

ABSTRACT The present study examined how the similarity and complementarity of gender-related attitudes, behaviors, interests, and personality traits related to partner selection and relationship adjustment in the context of serious, romantic relationships. Results revealed the important role of gender-related attitudes in relationships, indicating that study participants tended to be paired with partners who held similar attitudes, and that couples who were similar in attitudes had higher dyadic adjustment. Furthermore, the nature of the couples' attitudes affected (a) the extent to which couples were paired on the basis of complementary interests and behaviors, and (b) the relation between partner's gender-related behaviors and dyadic adjustment. Results support previous research citing the importance of attitude similarity in interpersonal attraction, and demonstrate that these findings can be generalized to ongoing, close relationships.     

The Preconditions and Consequences of Relative Deprivation: Two Field Studies1

Two field studies assessed the preconditions and behavioral consequences of relative deprivation. A sample of single mothers receiving government assistance participated in Study 1, and a sample of working women participated in Study 2. We found general support for a 2-factor model of the preconditions of relative deprivation, in which wanting the desired state and deserving the desired state were the best predictors of discontent. In both studies, discontent regarding the status of one's group (i.e., single mothers or working women) was specifically predictive of reports of group-directed protest behaviors. In Study 2, discontent regarding one's own status was specifically predictive of willingness to engage in self-improvement behaviors. Participants in both studies reported more group discontent than personal discontent. These findings provide support from naturalistic settings for the construct of relative deprivation.     

The Prediction of Household Recycling of Newspapers: The Role of Attitudes,Intentions, and Situational Factors1

The present study was designed to examine differences between respondents who recycled during a 2-week observation period and those who did not. Of interest was the ability of factors drawn from Ajzen and Madden's (1986) theory of planned behavior and situational factors such as perceptions of borough councils' recycling programs to predict who would recycle. It was found that, although attitudes and intentions to recycle household newspapers were significant predictors of recycling behavior, factors associated with the inconvenience of recycling and the programs provided by borough councils, as well as respondents' past recycling behavior, were also significant predictors.     

Adult Children of Alcoholics In and Out of Psychotherapy: Issues of Intimacy and Interpersonal Relationships1

We examined differences between treatment-seeking and nontreatment-seeking adult children of alcoholics (ACOAs) and adult children of nonalcoholics (ACONAs) in regard to numerous aspects of interpersonal and intimate relationships. The subjects were 278 college students, aged 18 to 34. Consistent with many other studies, there were numerous differences between ACOAs in treatment and ACONAs not in treatment, although further analyses confirmed the methodological flaw and confound in such comparisons. There were no significant interactions between ACOA and treatment status, nor between ACOAs and ACONAs, regardless of treatment status, with only one likely chance exception of self-regard (ACONAs not in treatment reported higher self-regard than did ACOAs not in treatment). Finally, those seeking treatment reported significantly less affectional expression, lower self-regard, more depressive traits, and less dating competence and assertiveness compared to those not in treatment regardless of ACOA status. Therefore, treatment-seeking status and not ACOA status account for intimacy and interpersonal problems in this study and probably many others.